Jiangsu Ancient Civilization 江苏古代文明

Jiangsu was an important Neolithic region in China with its abundant cultural remains discovered at more than 300 heritage sites from that period.

This is part of the permanent exhibition in the History Gallery of Nanjing Museum showcasing the development of Jiangsu from Neolithic Age (ca. 4000 BC) to Pre-Qin period (220 BC), spanning across a period of almost 4,000 years

Ancient Charm of Prehistory 天地造化 史前神韵

More than 20 Palaeolithic sites have been found in Jiangsu. Paleoanthropology fossils discovered at the Tangshan site in Nanjing, Xiacaowan site in Sihong, Lianhuadong site in Dantu, and Shenxiandong site in Lishui represent the evolutionary process of human in Jiangsu. Palaeolithic sites such as Heshangdun site in Jintan, Fangniushan site in Jurong, and Sanshandao site in Suzhou are the evidence of early human activity in Jiangsu.¹

The Shunshanji site in Sihong dating back to 8,000 years ago is the earliest Neolithic site of Jiangsu. About 6,000 years ago, four branches of cultures were formed in Jiangsu, which played a significant role in the civilising process of the areas of the lower reach of the Yangtze River and eastern coast, and made Jiangsu one of the cradles of Chinese civilisation.

Domestication, pottery and jade making, textiles and lacquerware, and stone tool processing all progressed comprehensively, leading to increased material wealth, a growing population, rapidly expanding settlements, significant social stratification, increasingly complex organisational structures, and distinct cultural characteristics. Ultimately, the hallmarks of civilisation—ancient cities and states—emerged.²

Early Societal Stratification

A Preliminary Stratification of Society – Represented by the Beiyinyangying Site in Nanjing (6500-5800 years ago). All 242 tombs were located in a clan cemetery, with the heads of the deceased generally facing the same direction. Grave goods typically consisted of 3-5 items, indicating relative equality among members of society. However, a few tombs contained over 30 grave goods, and some yielded exquisite jade and stone artefacts, reflecting inequality in property ownership and the initial stratification of society.³

An egalitarian society, exemplified by the Luotuodun site in Yixing (dating back 7000-6500 years). All burial sites were located in the clan’s communal cemetery. There were 52 adult burials, with largely consistent orientation and burial styles, and almost no grave goods, except for a very few containing 1-3 small pottery items. Infant urn burials were scattered among the adult burials. Similar phenomena were observed in burials from the same period in other regions, demonstrating a state of equality among all individuals.⁴

A distinctly stratified society is evident, as exemplified by the Dongshan Village site in Zhangjiagang (5800-5200 years ago). High-ranking tombs and smaller tombs are located in different areas. High-ranking tombs have large, deep pits with numerous burial goods, typically more than 30 items, with the most numerous (Tomb No. 90) containing 67 items. The goods are diverse, including pottery, stone tools, and jade artefacts; they are of high quality, with exquisite jade and stone artefacts, mostly more than 10 pieces, and the most numerous reaching 19 pieces. Smaller tombs are smaller in scale and contain fewer burial goods, generally only pottery. This reveals a clear gap between rich and poor and social stratification.⁵

A severely stratified society was characterised by sites such as Sidun, Zhaolingshan, and Qiuchengdun (dating back 5200-4500 years). High-ranking noble tombs were located in dedicated elevated cemeteries, containing numerous jade artefacts as burial goods. Jade burials were common, with over 100 jade bi (discs) and cong (tubes) unearthed from Tomb No. 3 at the Sidun site. Jade cong, bi, and yue (axes) became symbols of social etiquette, power, status, religious rituals, and wealth. Social wealth and power became increasingly concentrated and monopolised, leading to severe social stratification.⁶

Neolithic cultures in Jiangsu

Located in the lower reaches of the Yangtze and Huai Rivers, Jiangsu boasts diverse flora and fauna, lush vegetation, abundant rainfall, and distinct seasons, making it an ideal habitat for humankind and an important distribution area for Neolithic culture in China. To date, over 300 cultural sites have been discovered. The Sihong Shunshanji site 泗洪顺山集遗址 , dating back over 8,000 years, is the earliest Neolithic cultural remains discovered in Jiangsu to date.

More than 6,000 years ago, Jiangsu, spanning the Yangtze and Huai Rivers, developed four major regional cultures: Taihu, Ningzhen, Jianghuai, and Huanghuai. These cultures developed independently yet influenced each other, collectively propelling the civilisation process of the lower Yangtze River region and the eastern coastal areas, becoming one of the important sources of Chinese civilisation.

A group of Neolithic artefacts consists of pottery and jade carvings from the eastern seaboard and the lower reaches of the Yangtze River in the south, representing the Hemudu (near Hangzhou), the Dawenkou and later the Longshan (in Shandong Province), and the Liangzhu (Hangzhou and Shanghai region). The grey and black pottery of eastern China is notable for its distinctive shapes, which differed from those made in the central regions and included the tripod, which was to remain a prominent vessel form in the subsequent Bronze Age.

While some pottery items made in the east were painted (possibly in response to examples imported from central China), potters along the coast also used the techniques of burnishing and incising. These same craftsmen are credited with developing the potter’s wheel in China.

Dawenkou Culture 大汶口文化 (ca. 4300-2600 BC)

The Dawenkou culture (ca. 4300–2600 BC) saw the transition from hand-built pottery to wheel-thrown ceramics using large stone wheels. Elegant forms emerged, sometimes perforated so they could be placed over a hearth. Abstract painted decorations or stylised motifs were arranged with remarkable skill across the entire surface. These objects, found in burials, reflect a culture that also mastered agriculture, as suggested by the presence of knives and sickles, likely used for harvesting.

Excavations have uncovered numerous traces of millet, rice, and soybean seeds in various archaeological layers. The main domesticated animals were pigs and dogs, with pig mandibles likely serving as funerary offerings. Jade ornaments and tripod vessels—which would later inspire the shape of the bronze li vessels—became more widespread and indicated social differentiation.

In the final phase, decorative motifs disappeared in favour of a greater focus on technical refinement, especially in the form of tall, slender goblets with perfectly vertical stems. This development appears to have continued into the Longshan culture.

Prominence of Jade

Of all aspects of the Neolithic cultures in eastern China, the use of jade made the most lasting contribution to Chinese civilisation. Polished stone implements were common to all Neolithic settlements. Stones to be fashioned into tools and ornaments were chosen for their harness and strength to withstand impact and for their appearance. Nephrite, or true jade, is a tough and attractive stone. In the eastern provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang, particularly in the areas near Lake Tai, where the stone occurs naturally, jade was worked extensively.⁷

Age of Early States 方国风云 吴越春秋

The Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties represent the Bronze Age in Chinese history, a period marked by the formation and gradual maturation of states. During the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), the region that is now Jiangsu was largely outside the direct control of the central Shang state based in Henan. It was inhabited by regional groups known as the Huaiyi 淮夷 or early Gouwu 句吳 tribes. While not under direct Shang rule, the area experienced cultural influences, and it served as a nascent, independent cultural hub.

During the Xia and Shang dynasties, Jiangsu area entered the Bronze Age and formed regional cultures, such as Hushu Culture⁸ that featured pottery Li without decoration and Shecheng Culture that featured pottery Fu and Ding (cooking vessels). These archaeological cultures embodied the early development of states.⁹

Remains from large scaled city sites or tombs were found within the sites. The excavated bronzes displayed the influence from the Central Plain as well as the innovation local styles. The proto-porcelains demonstrate strong local styles representing power and social status.¹⁰

Juxtaposition Of Powers 方国竞辉

Many small states known as Fangguo 方国 coexisted during the Western Zhou Dynasty and early Spring and Autumn Period, including the Pi, Dapeng, Xu, Gan, Wu, Yi as recorded in literature. Early fangguo gradually emerged in the Jiangsu region. These included Yi-related fangguo such as Xu, Zhongwu, Tan, Gan, and Yi, as well as Yue-related fangguo such as Wu and Yue. Through continuous collision and integration with the Central Plains culture, they created distinctive regional civilisations.¹¹

A fangguo could be considered a polity that consisted of several settlements, yi 邑, depending on its size and power. It was, however, not a city-state that had a socially and economically well- developed polity as the centre, which was then surrounded by rural villages, as we normally perceive. Neither was it a simple tribal society because of its own leader, armies, bureaucracy, and territory contiguous to or far away from the Shang, and it was certainly a hierarchical society. ¹²

Some of these fangguos were absorbed into Wu through subjugation or conquests; these include states of Yi and Gan. Some royalties of these fangguos, eg Xu and Zhongwu fled to Wu as a result of conquests by Chu or other bigger states; hence their tombs were found within the region of Wu and included some of these grave goods.

State of Yi 古宜国

Records of the State of Yi can be found in the inscription on the “Yi Hou Ce” Gui vessel¹³ discovered at Yandun Mountain in Dagang, Dantu District, Zhenjiang City, Jiangsu Province. King Kang of Zhou conferred upon Ce the title of Marquis of Yi, bestowing upon him land, slaves, bronze artefacts, and other gifts. Many scholars believe that “Yi” may have been located in the area around Dantu County, where the gui was unearthed. Numerous Western Zhou tombs with similar characteristics have been discovered along the Yangtze River in Dantu, such as the Muzidun and Mopandun tombs in Dagang, with cultural elements including bronze artefacts and plain pottery li vessels characteristic of the region. However, a consensus has not yet been reached in academic circles regarding the existence of the ancient State of Yi.¹⁴

State of Gan 古干（邗 hán）国

According to the Guanzi, a war broke out between the states of Wu and Gan. Many young men from Gan joined the army to fight for their country. The capital of Gan was located in the area north of present-day Yangzhou City, and its territory roughly encompassed the area north of the Yangtze River and south of the Huai River. Cultural elements include bronze artifacts with Central Plains style and local plain pottery vessels such as li and dou. Later, Gan was annexed by Wu and became its capital, Hanyi.

The Tianmushan City Site is located in the northern part of Jiangyan District, Taizhou City, Jiangsu Province. Extant remains include city walls and waterways, including ancient waterways. It is approximately 220 meters long from east to west and 200 meters wide from north to south, with inner and outer cities. The inner city, with sides of 70 meters, is located in the eastern part of the outer city and is separated from it by the western and southern city walls. The site was first built in the early Western Zhou Dynasty and is believed by scholars to be the site of the ancient state of Gan.¹⁵

State of Yan 古淹国

The Changzhou Spring and Autumn Period Yancheng Ruins are located in Wujin, a southern suburb of Changzhou. The city wall of Yancheng is 750m wide from north to south. Built of earth, it features a three-city, three-moat structure, consisting three moats in concentric circles surrounding three layers of cities. This architectural style is unique among ancient city ruins in my country. The Yancheng site has yielded three dugout canoes, cooking pots, ceramics, and other artefacts. The use of pottery tripods and cauldrons as cooking vessels, along with the extensive use of proto-porcelain and hard pottery, showcases a unique cultural character. ¹⁶

Legend has it that during the Shang Dynasty, in the Wen-Si River basin south of Mount Tai in Shandong, there was a tribe with the surname Miǎn (an ancient river name, located in present-day Shandong). The people of the tribe had a long-standing custom of worshipping turtles, so they combined the characters for “big turtle” to form “Yan,” which became the name of the state, marking the sublimation of the sacred image of their clan emblem: the turtle tribe was the Yan tribe.¹⁷

Xu and Zhongwu 徐、钟吾

The Xu and Zhongwu states, belonging to the Ying clan, comprised most of the area north of the Huai River in Jiangsu. According to historical records such as the Book of Rites and Han Feizi, the Xu state, covering an area of ​​500 li (approximately 250 km), was powerful for a time, with 36 states submitting to it. Founded by the Dongyi people, it had close ties with the Shang dynasty, retaining Shang cultural traditions. Its bronze casting techniques were superb, with elaborate decorations, ornate inscriptions, and elegant rhyme schemes, pioneering the southern style of bronze ware. Zhongwu was a small state, mentioned in historical records such as the Zuo Zhuan, and had close ties with the Wu state.¹⁸

Spring and Autumn Period – States of Wu and Yue

In the mid and-late Spring and Autumn Period, the Zhou court gradually lost its power, leaving at variety of States contending for hegemony, among which the State of Wu and the State of Yue successively became the winner.

Situated in modern-day Jiangsu (Wu) and Zhejiang (Yue) provinces, they were often viewed as non-Sinitic or “barbarian” by northern states due to distinct customs, although still recognised as members of the Zhou dynasty sphere. During the process, the regional culture of Jiangsu gradually merged into the mainstream of Chinese civilisation.

Wu and Yue were powerful, neighbouring rival states in the Yangtze River Delta during the late Spring and Autumn period (c. 6th–5th centuries BC). Known for advanced metallurgy (swords) and distinct, non-Sinitic culture, Wu (capital: Suzhou) initially dominated under Kings Helü and Fuchai, but Yue (capital: Kuaiji/Shaoxing), under King Goujian, ultimately conquered Wu in 473 BC.

Both states were famous for producing exceptional bronze swords, often inlaid with gold or silver and having a high tin content, making them highly prized in ancient China.

King Helü of Wu 吳王闔閭, aka King Guang 吴王光, is considered to be one of the Five Hegemons of China during the Spring and Autumn period²⁰ due to his military successes at this time with the help of his famous commander/strategist Sun Tzu. Wu is also generally regarded as developing the first Chinese navy.

Wu was a major vassal state of the Zhou court local to Jiangsu. The Wu culture had a strong local style particularly represented by its bronze weapons. In the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period, Wu claimed its hegemony over the Central Plain. Encountering the indigenous cultures of the Central Plain, the Wu culture, or the culture of Jiangsu, advanced the process to become a part of the Chinese Civilisation.

During the mid-to-late Spring and Autumn Period, the Zhou Dynasty declined, and the feudal lords vied for supremacy. The State of Wu conquered Han, subjugated Yue, defeated Chu, destroyed Xu, and attacked Qi, until it finally reached the Huangchi Alliance and challenged for supremacy in the Central Plains.²¹

Near the end of the Spring and Autumn period, Wu became a great power under King Helu and defeated the state of Qi in 484 BC, briefly becoming the major power in the north in modern-day Shandong province, and contest for the position of overlord over all states of China.²²

Wu was subjugated in 473 BC by Yue, another state that had emerged to the south in modern-day Zhejiang province. Following its victory, Yue became a major power but soon began to decline. The state was eventually weakened, with its capital moving back to Wu (Suzhou) before being conquered by the state of Chu in 333 BC.

During the Warring States period (475–221 BC), Jiangsu was primarily absorbed into the expanding state of Chu. Previously the home of the Wu state (spring and autumn period), the region was assimilated into the larger Chu polity, which controlled most of the Yangtze valley and surrounding areas before its final collapse to the Qin state in 223 BC.

Footnotes :

1. 江苏迄今发现旧石器时代遗存20余处，分布于太湖、宁镇、淮河下游地区及苏鲁交界处，这些遗存对研究早期人类的进化、迁徙、分布及环境变迁具有十分重要的意义。
   南京汤山、泗洪下草湾、丹徒莲花洞、溧水神仙洞的古人类化石，反映了人类在江苏地区的进化历程。金坛和尚墩、句容放牛山、苏州太湖三山岛、东海大贤庄和马陵山爪墩，以及连云港将军崖等旧石器时代文化遗址，是江苏早期的人类活动遗存，谱写了江苏人类历史的最初篇章。
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2. 距今8000 多年的泗洪顺山集遗址为江苏地区目前发现最早的新石器时代文化遗存。6000多年前，江苏在跨越江淮南北的地理格局中形成了太湖、宁镇、江淮、黄淮四大区系文化。他们各自发展又相互影响，共同推动了长江下游与东部沿海地区的文明化进程，成为中华文明的重要源头之一。
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3. 初步分层社会
   以南京北阴阳营遗址为代表（距今6500-5800年）。所有242 座墓葬均位于氏族公共墓地中，墓主头向基本一致，随葬品一般为3—5件，社会成员之间相对比较平等。但少数墓葬随葬品达到30多件，有的还出土了比较精美的玉器和石器，反映出财产占有的不平等和社会的初步分层现象。
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4. 平等社会
   以宜兴骆驼墩遗址为代表（距今7000-6500年）。所有基葬位于氏族公共墓地中，成人墓葬52座，墓葬头向、葬式大体一致，基本无随葬品，极个别墓葬有1-3 件小陶器。婴幼儿力瓮棺葬，散布于成人墓葬之间。其他地区同时期的墓葬，现象类似，显示出人人平等的状态。
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5. 明显分层社会
   以张家港东山村遗址 代表（距今5800-5200年）。高等级大墓和中小型墓分别埋藏于不同的区域，高等级墓的墓坑大而深，随葬品数量多，均在30件以上，最多的90号墓达到 67件；品种丰富，包括陶器、石器和玉器等；规格高，玉石器精美，多在10件以上，最多的达19件。中小型墓葬规模较小，随葬品数量较少，一般只有陶器。显示出明显的贫富差距和社会分化。
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6. 严重分层社会
   以寺墩、赵陵山、邱承墩等遗址为代表（距今 5200-4500 年）。高等级贵族大墓位于专门的高台墓地，随葬大量玉器，普遍出现玉敛葬现象如寺墩遗址3号墓出土玉璧、玉琮等隨葬品100余件。玉琮、玉璧、玉钺等主要玉器成为社会礼仪、权力地位、宗教祭祀、等级财富等的象征。社会财富和权力日益集中和垄断，社会严重分化。
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7. Department of Asian Art. “Neolithic Period in China.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cneo/hd_cneo.htm (October 2004) https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/neolithic-period-in-china
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8. The Hushu Culture is an archaeological Bronze Age culture (approx. 1500–1000 BC) centered around the Ningzhen region (Nanjing-Zhenjiang) of the Yangtze River Delta, characterized by stamped pottery, bronze artifacts, and its unique evolution from local Neolithic traditions, often interacting with neighboring Yueshi and Maqiao cultures.
   
   After the period of Liangzhu Culture, there came Maqiao Culture in Taihu Basin, when Central China entered the period of Xia Dynasty. Named after Maqiao Site of Shanghai, Maqiao Culture not only inherited part of factors of Liangzhu Culture, but also absorbed multiple cultural factors including Stamped Pottery Culture of Zhejiang, Hushu Culture of Ningzhen areas, Yueshi Culture of Shandong and Erlitou Culture in Central China. Typical Maqiao Culture site had been found at Wuxi Yangjia Site, the upper layer of Hongkoudun Site ,Xuxiang Site and Jiangyin Shecheng Site. A batch of bronze artifacts as knives, chisels and arrowheads unearthed in the period of Maqiao Culture indicated that this area had stepped from Stone Age to Early Bronze Age. https://www.wxmuseum.cn/En/Exhibition/Details/b4dacf93-9bf1-4e0b-b06a-e73ffba926a3
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9. 夏商时期，中原地区已出现成熟的华夏族国家，江苏地区也进入了青铜时代。具有鲜明地域特色的湖熟文化和佘城文化类型，或以素面陶鬲为炊器，或以陶釜、鼎为炊器。这些考古学文化与类型内涵丰富、各具特点，有一定的时空范围，昭示着国家的逐渐萌生。由于江苏北部地区接近中原，因此文化因素中的商文化特征颇为明显。
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10. 西周时期至春秋早期，江苏境内方国众多，见于文献的就有邳、大彭、徐、干（邗）、吴、宜等。
    在这些方国范围内，大型城址、重要墓葬等屡有发现。这些国家的青铜器制造受中原影响并有所创新。原始瓷器作为江南地区特有的产品，融入礼制生活，成为权力和地位的象征，具有鲜明的地方特色。
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11. 江苏地区也逐步出现早期国家——方国，徐、钟吾、郯、干、宜等夷系方国与吴、越等越系方国，在与中原文化不断碰撞、交融的过程中，创造了特色鲜明的地域文明。
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12. Shu-hui Wu, Ph.D., Alliance-Building at the Dawn of Chinese Civilization. Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, VOLUME 14, ISSUES 3 & 4, 2012. https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/jomass/v14i3/f_0027483_22457.pdf
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13. “宜侯夨”青铜簋
    周康王时期
    1954年江苏丹徒烟墩山出土
    “Yi Hou Ce” Bronze Gui (food container)
    Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 11th century-771 BC), King Kang’s reign
    Unearthed at Yandunshan, Dantu, Jiangsu Province, 1954
    分封制是周代创建的制度，与宗法制互为表里，成为周王朝的立国制度核心。《左传•僖公二十四年》记载“封建亲戚，以蕃屏周”，指明分封制的实施在于周天子授予自己的亲族及功臣特定的土地以建立封国，目的在于屏卫周王室。通过分封制的推行，周人的政治版图得以不断扩大。
    宜侯夨簋内底铸有长篇铭文，记录了周王将夨由虞地改封至宜地，并赐予相应的赏賜品。夨的身份也因此次改封之命，由虞候变为宜侯。西周时期有关分封内容的有铭铜器数量不少，但多为传世品，均为证史之重器。宜候夨簋所记载的分封内容，却不见于传世文献记载，且是出土铜器，故十分珍责。
    National Museum of China collection
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14. 古宜国
    关于宜国的记载，见于今江苏省镇江市丹徒区大港烟墩山发现的宜侯夨簋上的铭文。周康王册封夨为宜侯，赏赐他土地、奴隶、铜器等。许多学者认为，“宜”可能就在宜侯夨簋出土地丹徒县一带。丹徒沿江地区发现了许多具有相似特征的西周墓葬，如大港母子墩、磨盘墩等，文化因素包括有本地特点的铜器和素面陶鬲。关于古宜国的考证在学术界尚未形成共识。
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15. 古干国
    据《管子》记载，吴国与干国发生战争，干国未成年人争相参军，为国而战。干国都邑在今扬州市城北一带，领地约为江北准南之地。文化因素包括具有中原风格的青铜器和地方性素面陶鬲、高把豆等。后为吴国并，成为吴之邗邑。
    天目山城址位于江苏省泰州市姜堰区北部.已发现的遗存有城墙和河道等，包含古河道在内。东西长约220米、南北宽约200米，有内外城。内城边长70米，位于外城内的东部，以西城墙、南城墙与外城相隔。该城址始建于西周早期，学术界认为可能为古干国城址。
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16. 古淹国
    南北宽750米。淹城城墙力土筑，是三城三河结构，由内向外分为子城、子城河、内城、内城河、外城、外城河。这种建筑形制，在我国古城遗址中绝无仅有。淹城遗址目前出土了三条独木舟和青锅器、陶瓷器等文物。该遗址以陶鼎、釜为炊器，并大量使用原始瓷器和硬陶器，展现出独特的文化面貌。关于淹城遗址的性质还存在其它不同的观点。
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17. 淹城旅游区传说与考证
    相传，商汤时期，山东泰山南侧的汶泗流域有一黾(miǎn音免，古水名，在今山东。)姓的部族方国，族民素有崇龟的习俗，因而由“大龟”合文为“奄”，作为国名，标志着其氏族徽神圣意象的升华：龟族即奄族。
    后来，奄族因追随商纣，被周武王讨伐殷纣时灭国。族民迁移山东曲阜东部。不料数年后，奄国又因牵涉“三监”叛乱，再次被周公旦东征时赶杀，奄君遭残。 族民只得拥新君徙至淮夷之地。但周朝新君成王担心奄族还存谋反之心，欲以赶尽杀绝而后快，于是率兵亲征。小奄君无奈，只得再次带着族民向东南方逃避。https://www.cn-yc.com.cn/kaozheng
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18. 徐、钟吾
    江苏准河以北的大部分地区赢姓的徐、钟吾等国。据《礼记》、《韩非子》等文献记载，徐国方圆五百里，强盛一时，有三十六国臣服于它。该国为东夷民族所建，与殷商关系密切，其文化保有商文化传统，青铜器铸造工艺高超，纹饰繁缛，铭文辞藻华丽，用韵典雅，开南方系青铜器之先河。钟吾为小国，见于《左传》等文献记载，与吴国关系密切。
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19. Bronze Sword of King Guang of Wu State 吴王光剑
    铜器｜春秋 吴王阖闾（公元前514-496年在位）｜苏州博物馆藏
    Bronzeware | Spring and Autumn Period, King Helu of Wu (r. 514-496 BC) | Suzhou Museum
    
    一字形格，喇叭形空心圆茎，圆环形剑首，中空剑茎内残存木芯。剑身双刃弧曲，在近锋三分之一处收束形成锋尖。中脊线隆起，两从斜弧。靠近剑格处的剑脊两侧铸有两行八字铭文“攻吴王光自作用剑”。“吴王光”即吴王阖闾（公元前514-496年在位），“作”铭文中写为“乍”，与常见作字写法不一样，末笔带有盘曲，有学者认为这代表着吴国乌虫书的初始年代，但是近年来有随州文峰塔出土吴王子光戟，已是成熟的鸟书，因此“乍”字至多只能视作乌虫书的一种简化表达。
    
    Photo taken at Suzhou Museum Nov 2025 but author.
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20. 春秋五霸
    During the Spring and Autumn era itself, the hegemony tended to apply to states; it was therefore possible to speak of the State of Jin and the State of Chu struggling for hegemony over the Zhou states. In historical accounts it instead became associated with individual rulers, namely the ones who first brought their respective states to a dominant position. During the Spring and Autumn period the reigns of each hegemon tended to correspond with the zenith of their state’s power. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Hegemons
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21. 春秋中晚期，周室衰微，诸侯争霸。吴国吞邗、服越、破楚、灭徐、伐齐，直至黄池会盟，问鼎中原。
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22. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiangsu, accessed 18 Mar 2026
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