Where Civilisations Meet

During my visit to the National Museum of China, some of the National Treasures were moved from the Permanent Exhibition to be exhibited in this special exhibition that showcased the interactions between the ancient civilisations along the Silk Road.

Coinciding with the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) Tianjin Summit, this exhibition takes on a distinctive significance. Under the theme of the “Shanghai Spirit” — respect for diverse civilisations and the pursuit of common development — it presents 220 artefacts (sets) carefully selected from ten museums and cultural institutions of the SCO member states. These include symbolic artefacts that illuminate the origins, development, and evolution of ancient civilisations, as well as representative objects highlighting historical exchanges and mutual influences among the member states.

The Silk Road

The Silk Road (c. 130 BC – 1453 AD) was a complex web of routes covering 6,437+ km through mountains and deserts, not a single road. The expansion of universal religions paralleled the establishment of vast trading networks between Africa, Asia and Europe. China emerged as one of the main actors in these exchanges and a major hub for innovation in the 7th century (Tang dynasty), producing world-changing inventions such as porcelain, gunpowder, paper and printing. 

The fall of Constantinople and the rise of the Ottoman Empire in 1453, followed by the development of maritime routes by European explorers, led to the decline of the overland routes. “To follow the Silk Road is to follow a ghost. It flows through the heart of Asia, but it has officially vanished leaving behind the pattern of its restlessness: counterfeit boarders, unmapped peoples.” Colin Thubron, Shadow of the Silk Road.

Copper Printing Plate for Zhiyuan Currency Notes (200 Wen) 至元通行宝钞铜钞版（贰佰文）

Copper | Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) | National Museum of China collection. 铜｜元（公元1271 1368年）｜中国国家博物馆藏

While previous Chinese paper money (like the Song dynasty Jiaozi) was often backed by, or convertible into, gold or silver, the Yuan government began transitioning towards a “fiat” system, where the money was backed primarily by government decree and its legal tender status, rather than a commodity.

“Plum Blossom” patterned bowl (cup) “梅花”纹碗

Brass | 13th-14th centuries | Excavated from Shenggeldi, Almaty | National Museum of Kazakhstan collection

This cup is lightweight and portable, perfect for a person travelling on horseback. The engraved and punched decoration is remarkably fine. The gilding and intricate patterns, as well as the decorative edging of the handle, suggest that it was made for a member of the elite.

Another similar cup is in the collection of the Asian Civilisation Museum of Singapore. Related vessels and the excavated ones discussed above are associated with the wider Mongol empire and found in the region governed by the Golden Horde (Jochi Ulus) of the Western Eurasian steppe region. They are very similar to the present example, with a shallow rounded shape supported on a flat base, a thumb-rest, either scalloped or crescent-shaped.

The Golden Horde, part of the Mongol Empire, spanned from Eastern Europe to Siberia. Although various religions were practised, the Golden Horde was Islamised during the 14th century through its longest-reigning leader, Öz Beg (reigned 1313-41), a Muslim convert.

Pottery Bowl from Caravanserai 陶碗

Pottery | 13th-14th centuries | Excavated from the ruins in Shengeldy, Zhetysu | The National Museum of Kazakhstan collection

The Caravanserai where this bowl was excavated was located at a busy crossroads of regional trade routes, connecting routes from Central, Eastern, and Southern Kazakhstan with Central Asia. They combined multiple functions: serving as hotels, trading posts, and fortified camps. As staging posts for trade caravans moving along the Silk Road, they provided shelter and security for merchants and travelers. Emerging in the 10th-uth centuries, the caravanserai endured multiple raids, suffering plundering and destruction. It ultimately ceased functioning in the 13th century during the wars.⁵

Cultures Along the Silk Road

For centuries, through the Silk Road, an enduring bridge connecting East and West these civilisations have engaged in exchanges marked by mutual appreciation and inspiration. Rooted in the ancient and fertile soil of Eurasia, the member states of the SCO are home to some of the world’s most distinguished civilisations. Across this vast land, as a magnificent galaxy of cultures, flourish the Chinese civilisation, Central Asian civilisation, ancient Indian and South Asian civilisations, ancient Persian and West Asian civilisations, and ancient Slavic civilisation, among many others.

Five thousand years ago, in the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, humans domesticated horses and began using them for riding. This innovation led to significant transformations, including ethnic migration processes, the expansion of caravan trade routes, the spread of advanced technologies, and the dissemination of ideological concepts, all of which had a profound impact on global civilisation.

At the crossroads of the Silk Road, the ancient cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, Tashkent, and Termez (all part of modern-day Uzbekistan) became centres of crafts, trade, and cultural exchange, laying the foundations for a unique civilisation.

The Achaemenid Empire, founded by Cyrus II the Great in the 6th century BC, was one of the largest powers of the ancient East. Its artistic traditions-including sculpture and throne decorations in the form of ram heads—left their mark on the territory of present-day Tajikistan.

The Kushan Kingdom (1st-4th centuries), which embraced Bactria, northern India, and parts of modern Tajikistan, fostered the development of trade, crafts, urban planning, and cultural exchange, including the spread of Buddhism. This is attested by a bronze lamp⁹ with reliefs and Buddhist symbols discovered in ancient Kobadiyan (Qubodiyon).

Ancient Panjakent (5th-8th centuries), often called the “Pompeii of the East,” has yielded artefacts that showcase the superb craftsmanship of Sogdian artisans and the profound cultural heritage of the ancestors of the Tajiks.

The Samanid State (819-999) holds landmark significance in the history of the Tajiks, as the first political entity to unite the lands of the ancestors of the modern Tajik people, playing a crucial role in shaping their ethnic and cultural identity. During the Samanid era, literature, science, architecture. and ceramic art flourished, while the cities of Bukhara and Samarkand grew into major cultural and commercial centers of the region.

While the primary Silk Road passed through Central Asia, a northern branch known as the Steppe Route passed through the southern Russian lands, Siberia, and the Urals, bringing luxuries such as Chinese silk to these areas, which has been confirmed by archaeological findings in tombs.

While the broader Silk Road originated around 130 BCE, the trade in northern fur routes became particularly intensive during the medieval period. Nicknamed the “Fur Road”, it was a specialised northern branch of the Silk Road network, connecting the forested regions of Northern Europe and Russia with the central trade hubs along the Volga River and ultimately the Islamic world during the Middle Ages. It facilitated a massive trade in furs—including sable, fox, and beaver—driven by Finno-Ugrian hunters and Volga Bulgar merchants. 

The objects presented at the exhibition are not just art and household items, they are part of history that connects the past, present and future. Through the prism of these exhibits, we can see how cultural heritage becomes a bridge between people, uniting them in their desire to preserve and develop their traditions.

Throne Element in Shape of Ram’s Head 公羊首形王座铜饰件

Bronze | 5th-4th century BC | Discovered in 1979 in the riverbed of the Isfarasoy River, east of the village of Ravat in the Kanibadam | National Museum of Tajikistan collection

This exhibit dates to the period of the First Persian Empire the Achaemenid Empire of the 5th-4th century BC. Rams smoothly curved backward (rips broken off). The lower rims at the base of the rams are marked with a raised ring bearing incised grooves, and the annual rings are engraved at a sharp downward angle. The eye sockets are clearly defined, the eyes are protruding, and the brow ridges are well modeled. Traces of chopping are visible on the neck. The artefact demonstrates the high craftsmanship of sculptors of that time.¹³

Carved object 雕刻件

Wood | 5th-3rd centuries BC | Excavated from the Kurgan Cemetery No. 2 in Katanda Village, Barnaur District, Tomsk Oblast | Russian State Historical Museum collection

This carved plate depicting a predator (possibly a feline) biting the neck of a fantastic beast. A distinctive feature of the Scythian era was the unique Scythian-Siberian animal style, which is characterised by images of strong and fast animals in certain poses.

The carved object was found at the Great Katanda burial mound together with wooden figurines of horses, sewn onto a fur breastplate and wrapped together in a fur coat. It may have functioned as a decorative buckle or fastener. Similar “hoofed griffin” are known in Republic of Altai, Republic of Tuva, Northern China and Mongolia as patterns for clothing.¹⁴

Art and Science

The 5th century art and science on the Silk Road can thus be characterised as a period of profound “creative synthesis,” where foreign visual traditions and technologies were not merely copied, but adapted and integrated into local cultures, forming a distinct, hybrid, and internationalised culture.

The Silk Road functioned as a vital conduit for the exchange of art and science, bridging East Asia, Central Asia, and the Mediterranean, particularly driven by the spread of Buddhism and the movement of nomadic peoples. This period was characterised by a syncretism of styles—merging Greek, Persian, and Indian influences with Chinese aesthetics—and the transmission of specialised knowledge in metallurgy, glassmaking, and textile production.

Nomadic cultures along the routes, such as the Sarmatians and later Turkic peoples, influenced metalworking, contributing techniques for creating complex jewelry and gold plaques.

Monks and traders functioned as carriers of knowledge, sharing medicinal herbs, religious texts, and cosmological concepts between India and China. This astrolabe was made during Emperor Humayun reign (1530-1556), decorated with arabesques, geometric patterns and inscriptions. He had a passionate interest in astronomy and astrology, a trait reflected in this use of astrolabes. Engraved plates display longitudes and latitudes alongside Persian scripts and numerals. Astrolabe was a useful tool in navigation and astronomy.

Brass Astrolabe 黄铜星盘仪

Brass | Lahore, Emperor Humayun reign (1530-1556) | Islamabad Museum collection

The pin holds all the various parts together. It is kept in place by sliding a wedge, called a “horse”, through the slot. The rete (the openwork brass plate in front) has been cut out to bear star pointers, shaped here like the tips of unfurling leaves, and the ecliptic ring. It can be rotated over the latitude plates underneath. The rete offers the instrument maker the greatest opportunity for artistic expression, and a great variety of designs exist.¹⁶

The Porcelain Road

Silk Road pottery from the 5th to 18th centuries was a medium of intense artistic exchange, featuring high-quality Chinese porcelain (Tang sancai, white porcelain, blue-and-white) traveling westward, while techniques like cobalt blue decoration and Islamic pottery styles moved east. Key developments included the development of durable, white kaolin-based ceramics in Jingdezhen and the 9th-century adoption of white slip by Basra potters to emulate Chinese ware.

By 10th – 14th Century (Song/Yuan Dynasty), Jingdezhen became a major ceramic centre. Cobalt blue from the Middle East was imported to China to create the famous blue-and-white wares, which became a global trade staple as shipping developed during the Song dynasty.

By 15th – 18th Century (Ming/Qing Dynasty), maritime routes replaced land routes, with mass exportation of blue-and-white porcelain to Europe. Porcelain became a Chinese “business card,” heavily influencing European taste and triggering imitations.

The Rococo art style, which is comparable to the ceramics of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, originated in France in the 18th century. The emergence of the Rococo style in Europe broke the Baroque style characterised by strong drama and exaggeration advocated by European aristocratic courts.¹⁹

Blue-and-White Basin with Floral Scroll Design 青花缠枝花卉纹折沿盆

Porcelain | Yongle reign (1403—1424), Ming dynasty | National Museum of China collection. 瓷器｜明永乐（公元1403—1424年）｜中国国家博物馆藏

Covered throughout with intricate blue-and-white patterns, this basin features floral sprays on Flared-rim basin with straight walls and flat base, fully decorated in underglaze blue. The flared-rim form was a Yongle innovation, inspired by Iranian brass basins. Its simple, grand shape and clear, refined decoration reflect the highest level of Yongle porcelain craftsmanship.

High-grade cobalt pigment (Sumaliqing, or Samarra Blue) brought back by Zheng He enabled vibrant blue-and-white decoration. These basins represent the fusion of foreign materials and Chinese techniques, showcasing early Ming cultural integration, technical innovation, and aesthetic refinement.²⁰

Kuznetsov Decorative Vase 花瓶

Porcelain | Late 19th-early 20th century, Russian Empire | Made by Factory of “Partnership of M.S. Kuznetsov” | , Tver province, Korchevsky district, village of Kuznetsovo | Russian State Historical Museum collection

Matey Sidorovich Kuznetsov (1847-1911) was Russia’s prominent industrialist of the late 19th-early 20th century, who founded the famous M.S. Kuznetsov Partnership Factory for the Production of Porcelain and Faience. In 1870, he acquired Russia’s finest faience factory in the village of Kuznetsovo, Tver Province. This enterprise became Kuznetsov’s centre for faience and majolica production. The majority of items were made in the Russian style, which reflected the personal preferences of the owner. In collaboration with architects Fyodor Shekhtel and Alexander Kaminsky, Kuznetsov developed an entire collection of Russian-style ceramics, including a fully decorated dining room in his Moscow estate by 1891.

Military Traditions

After man grouped together into tribal units, the first wars were fought over the redistribution of resources – water, grains, hunting ground. When the first nations were founded, these conflicts became the fight for territory and status. The armies started to develop uniforms, insignias and other visible decorations to differentiate them with the enemies. And as military traditions developed, these uniforms became symbols of ranks and power, in addition to the requirements for arming oneself with the necessary tools for warfare.

From the beginning of recorded history, combat helmets have been worn and crafted as our early ancestors realized the importance of protecting the head during battle. The oldest recorded helmets – combat helmets appeared around 3000 BC. They were manufactured from tough crocodile skin. This material was easy to shape so that the finished product, the helmet, could be fitted to the warrior’s head.²⁵ Recent archaeological finds lead to some scholars proposing the origin of the Kuban-type Scythian helmets is associated with the northern provinces of China in the early Western Zhou period.²⁶

Shield with Depictions of Angels 装饰守护神像的盾牌

Metal | 16th—18th centuries | National Museum of Tajikistan collection

This circular metal shield, dating from the 16th to 18th centuries, is well preserved and fully decorated on its outer surface. At the centre are five heads: one in the middle and four surrounding it. Their mouths, noses, eyes, and eyebrows resemble those of humans, with rays of light radiating from each head toward the central motif. Along the four sides of the shield are pairs of winged figures facing each other in a semi-seated posture, as if holding objects, identified as angels. The images are rendered in yellow. The rim of the shield is adorned with floral patterns and Arabic inscriptions encircling its entire circumference.²⁷

Short Sword (Dagger) 铁剑

Metal | 5th century BC | From Voronezh province, Russia | Russian State Historical Museum collection

A dagger or short sword was one of the most common close combat weapons and an indispensable attribute of the Scythian warrior’s armament. This item became one of the main elements of the so-called “Scythian triad”, which defines the entire era of the early Iron Age: weapons, horse harness and animal style in art.

Acinaces were used throughout the Scythian era by the population of the steppes, forest-steppes, foothills of Eastern Europe, Southern Siberia, Central Asia. A typical Scythian rider warrior would carry a bow and arrows ending in bronze tips, wear a short iron sword-acinaces, and a pole axe or spear, riding on a horse equipped with harnesses with”animal style” bronze plaques.

Religions Along the Silk Road

During the time of the opening of the Silk Road, the Chinese was mainly practising forms of worship influenced by Taoism, a religion derived from the philosophy of Laozi, a recluse during the Warring States who wrote the seminary work Dao De Jing, and through the incorporation of shamanic traditions, longevity practices, and the deification of Laozi during the Han Dynasty. Other religions came through the Silk Road include some of the oldest ones that existed at that time (~2nd century BC) – Judaism (Palestine), Jainism (Indus Valley), Zoroastrianism (Persia). Other religions – Christianity, Buddhism, Islam and others – came after around the Northern dynasties (~4th century AD) but the initial waves of divinity did not make any impact to the Han culture.

Shamanism Female Deity (Terracotta) 陶女神像

Pottery｜3500-3000 BC｜Mehrgarh, Balochistan｜Islamabad Museum collection. 陶器｜公元前3500—3000年｜俾路支省梅赫尔格尔遗址出土｜巴基斯坦伊斯兰堡博物馆藏

This is a female figurine, probably mother goddess. The figurine has elaborate coiffure and ornaments. The prominent hips and breasts symbolise fertility and procreation.²⁸ The Chinese practiced similar shamanism, which continue its development around ancestral worship.

Jain Ritual Pool (Terracotta) 陶制耆那教仪式水池

Pottery | 200 BC-200 AD | Excavated from Sirkap, Taxila | Islamabad Museum collection

This ritual tank symbolises cosmology of the Jainism. This Jain pool features oil lamps at its four corners, steps inside, and traces of birds perching along its edges. The pool represents the four elements of nature—earth, air, fire, and water—and all living things: the clay used to make the pool symbolises the earth, the birds represent the air, the oil lamps at the four corners represent flames, and the water and aquatic life (four slithering snakes) in the pool clearly indicate water and the origin of life.²⁹

Orthodox Christian Silver Chalice 圣餐杯

Gilt silver | 16th century | National Historical Museum of Belarus collection

One of the most significant later period art objects of Belarus is a 16th century silver chalice for the Christian communion rite from the Orthodox church in Navahrudak. There is a dedicatory inscription on the chalice: “This chalice, paten and spoon were presented by Grigory Shchekot to the Church of the Holy Mother of God in Navahrudak. May the Lord be merciful to him.” This is one of the two oldest chalices that have been fully preserved from the Middle Ages. It was made in the Gothic style, which was fashionable at that time. Regrettably, the paten or communion plate and spoon have not survived to this day.³⁰

Buddhism Spreads to the Middle Kingdom

Buddhism entered China during the Han period and developed significantly through the Six Dynasties and Sui dynasty, with frequent visits by monks and tribute envoys from Western and Central Asia. Small ivory devotional images like the ivory stele from the Indus Valley below were portable and often served as sacred objects carried by monks or envoys. They were important vehicles for the early transmission of Buddhism into China and provide material evidence of the openness of Chinese civilisation.

The legacy of Gandharan art is dominated by the remarkable artistic tradition of Buddhism. As a source of national pride for Pakistan, Gandharan art is characterised by a compelling fusion of multicultural influences, extending along the Silk Route to China, the Korean peninsula and Japan. Jainism, along with Brahmanism and Buddhism, was one of the contemporary religions practiced in Gandhara.

Narrative Relief of Sakyamuni Buddha 释迦牟尼本生故事浮雕

Stone｜200-500 AD ｜Gandhara｜Islamabad Museum collections

This arched relief panel shows two scenes from the life of the Buddha. The bottom tier is adorned with five seated Buddhas in Dhyana Mudra pose.These five Buddhas are the Five Dhyani Buddhas of Esoteric Buddhism, also known as the “Five Wisdom Tathagatas”, aka the Five Wisdom Buddhas in Vajrayana Buddhism.

On the top compartment, Naga King Apalala being converted by the Buddha. Apalala is seated in a water tank adorned with a lion head, joining his hands. A large Naga (serpent) is sheltering him. On his left, the Buddha is standing along with Vajrapani and a devotee.³³

The lower panel depicts a scene where the Buddha is seated on a high throne. The Bodhi tree under which the Buddha reached enlightenment marks the centre of the composition. It had been under worship by local villagers, for it was known to be the residence of nature divinity, who here emerges from the tree and altar to praise the Buddha. The altar itself is covered with kusha grass used in the conte of sacrificial offerings. At the base of the altar, the earth goddess has risen from the ground and kneels before the Buddha in reverence.

Ivory Buddhist Votive Stele 印度牙雕佛传故事造像

Ivory | 7th century | Collected from Yulin Grottos, Anxi, Gansu province | National Museum of China collection. 象牙｜公元7世纪｜甘肃安西榆林窟采集｜中国国家博物馆藏

This stele is made of ivory and was intended for portable Buddhist devotion. It was likely made in India. The stele is composed of two carved ivory panels joined by hinges and can be opened and closed. When closed, it forms a fully sculpted elephant carrying a stupa and ornately dressed figures, representing the division of the Buddha’s relics among eight kings. When opened, each panel is divided into 27 compartments with narrative reliefs.³⁴

Burial Traditions

Burial traditions along the Silk Road during the 5th century (roughly corresponding to the Northern Wei dynasty in China, the late Roman/Byzantine period, and the rise of nomadic empires) were characterised by a high degree of cultural exchange, synthesis, and diversity. The practices reflected a blend of traditional Chinese rites, nomadic rituals from the steppes, and growing influence from Zoroastrian and Buddhist belief systems.

Graves included Chinese-style pottery, Persian Sasanian silver coins (like the one above), Byzantine gold coins, Central Asian jars, and silk clothing, reflecting a cosmopolitan society. These practices show that the Silk Road was not just a route for goods, but a conduit for the transfer of spiritual beliefs and afterlife rituals between different civilisations.

Ossuary with Carving of Chinvat Bridge (Zoroastrianism) 纳骨瓷

Ceramic | 6th-7th century | Excavated from Sivaz, Kitab District, Kashkadarya | The State Museum of History of Uzbekistan collection.

The Chinvat Bridge, also known as the “Bridge of the Separator,” the final destination and judgement of the soul and of humankind is central to Zoroastrian afterlife beliefs.³⁹ The ossuary is rectangular in shape, with a lid featuring a serrated handle. One of the long sides bears an elaborate ten-figure composition divided into three scenes. In the central scene, a crowned figure is depicted seating on a carpet atop a zoomorphic throne supported by two rams, holding an altar in one hand and a scepter in the other. Flanking the central figure area are a dancer and a harpist, both kneeling. The opposite side of the ossuary shows scenes with priests performing fire sacrifices and a horseman leaning toward an altar.⁴⁰

Ritual of Washing Hands Before Meals

Hand hygiene, once considered a simple act of cleanliness, has taken on profound cultural significance in the Middle East and Central Asia. In many modern-day Arabic, particularly Moroccan and Gulf, cultures, it is traditional for a host to present a decorative pitcher and basin to guests before and after meals. This allows guests to wash their hands, often with scented water, as a gesture of cleanliness and honour, can be traced to the Muslim Wudu (Ritual Ablution⁴¹). To summarise, the cultural impact of hand hygiene is a dynamic fusion of tradition and modernity. ⁴²

Washing Basin, aka “Dastshui” 洗手盆 “达斯舒伊”

Gold ｜Early 20th century｜The National Museum of Tajikistan collections

It is round in shape, with sloped edges designed to prevent water spillage during hand washing. The edges and lid are decorated with carved and engraved animal and plant motifs. In the central part of the basin, elongated pentagonal frames contain images of 25 deer depicted in various poses. The decoration also includes other patterns such as circles, wavy, straight, and vertical lines.

Chinese had a similar ceremony back in Western Zhou dynasty (ca. 11th – 7th century BC). According to the record of the Book of Rites, bronze basin, aka pan 盤 was used for the rite of washing 盥禮, and is used in conjunction with a yi 匜, a water jug. Water is poured from the jug by the host for the guest while the son of the host kneels and holds the pan under the guest’s hands.

Dressing Up

Dressing in the Central Steppes is defined by a nomadic culture that balances practicality with rich symbolism, designed to withstand harsh winters, strong winds, and long days on horseback. Traditional attire is rooted in the use of natural materials—leather, fur, and wool—and emphasises durability and freedom of movement.

Man’s Gold Embroidered Robe 男式金线刺绣长袍

Velvet | 1900-1905 | Made in Bukhara | The State Museum of Arts of Uzbekistan collection

A man’s robe made of translucent velvet, embroidered with red pattern on a light base.There is a medallion featuring rosette at the center of the robe’s hack. ⁴⁸

Writing Home

Writing is an important clue to what happened along the Silk Road. Besides the bamboo slips left behind in the key military fortifications in Gansu, other forms of writings in terms inscriptions on clay and bronze objects like the ones above gave us a glimpse of the daily lives of the people that once lived on these lands.

Decorated Tray 装饰托盘

Copper | 19th century | National Museum of Tajikistan collection.

Square tray with a central rectangular panel depicting a dance scene. Surrounding the rectangle are thirty-three circular medallions, each portraying a rider on horseback in different postures. Arabic inscriptions and human figures are arranged along the outer rim.⁵⁰

Ink Bottle 墨水瓶

Brass | 16th-18th centuries | National Museum of Tajikistan collection

It was a traveling writing set used by scribes and scholars to carry reed pens in the tubular compartment and ink in the attached hinged box, often referred to as a divit or qalamdan; qalam is Persian for pen and dan for container. The handmade brass container has lids on both sides, with wavy lines decorating the central and upper sections. A separate rectangular vessel with lid (the inkwell) is attached to it. This object was used by scribes to store ink for writing books and treatises.⁵¹

Pencil Case 笔盒

Copper | 19th century | National Museum of Tajikistan collection.

A rectangular brass case for storing pencils and pens. The edges are decorated with geometric and floral motifs, and horizontal wavy lines adorn all four sides of the top. Four lines of Persian poetry, written in Nastaliq script, are inscribed on the surface, The poems describe various leaves and plants, elements commonly used in the art of calligraphy.⁵²

Foreign Talents – The Sogdians

Sogdia or Sogdiana was an ancient Iranian civilisation between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya rivers, and in present-day Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. Sogdiana was also a province of the Achaemenid Empire, and listed on the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great.⁵⁴

In the 1st millennium BC, large historical and cultural regions formed on the territory of modern Uzbekistan: Bactria, Khorezm, Sogdiana, Chach, and Fergana. Stable centres of settled agriculture arose here, and from the 7th to 4th centuries BC, the first cities began to develop, where early forms of statehood emerged.⁵⁵ Sogdians also lived in Imperial China and rose to prominence in the military and government of the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Sogdian merchants and diplomats travelled as far west as the Byzantine Empire. They played an essential part as middlemen in the Silk Road trade route. ⁵⁶

From the 2nd century BC onward, the region became an important link in the Silk Road, connecting China, India and the Mediterranean. Across this territory, there was a vibrant exchange of goods, knowledge and cultural traditions.⁵⁸

In the early Middle Ages (5th-10th century), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, there were independent possessions on the territory of Sogdiana – Samarkand⁵⁹, Bukhara, Kesh, Nahshab, etc., ruled by local dynasties. The region achieved a high level of economic development, and international trade, especially with China (Northern Dynasties to Tang Dynasty), became strategically important. Among the outstanding monuments of art of that time are the wall paintings from the palace in Afrasiab and Varakhsha, as well as ganche reliefs with exquisite decorative carvings. The diversity of this culture emphasises the richness of artistic forms and spiritual depth, revealing the cultural traditions that have shaped the unique image of Uzbekistan.

Stone with Sogdian Inscription 刻有粟特语铭文石块

Stone | 7th-8th century | Excavated from ruins of Ancient Panjakent | National Museum of Tajikistan collection

This stone bears a Sogdian inscription reading “Tishfarn, son of Vukhushvard”, discovered in the ancient city of Panjikent. It serves as evidence that the Sogdians-the ancestors of the Tajik people—possessed a developed writing system between the 5th and 8th centuries. The three-line inscription, written in black ink, is well preserved. The elegant calligraphic style suggests that it was created by a professional scribe.⁶⁰

Yellow-Glazed Central Asian-Style Clay Figurine 黄釉陶胡俑

Pottery | Tang dynasty (618-907) | Excavated in 1957 from the tomb of Xianyu Tinghui, Tang dynasty, Xi’an, Shaanxi province | National Museum of China collection. 陶器｜唐（公元618—907年）｜1957年陕西西安唐鲜于庭诲墓出土｜中国国家博物馆藏

Conclusion

The grand vision of harmony and coexistence among SCO member states stands as a living testament to the exchanges and mutual learning of world civilisations. Together, these treasures shine like stars in the galaxy of civilisations, vividly reflecting the profound cultural heritage of the SCO countries and truly presenting the history of dialogue, learning, an interaction that has been carried out along the Silk Road.

About National Museum of China

National Museum of China 中国国家博物馆
16 E Chang’an St, Dongcheng District, Beijing, China
北京市东城区东长安街16号 邮编：100006

Footnotes :

1. Indus Seal (Steatite) 滑石印章
   Stone | v2600—1800 BC | Excavated from the Mohenjo-daro site in Sindh province | Islamabad Museum collection
   
   这类精细雕刻的印度河文明印章可能用于贸易活动。印章通常呈四方形。印章正面大多刻有神话场景或动物图案，以及约5个印度河文字符号。印章背面通常带有一个小钮，便于穿绳系挂或用作固定等。
   
   This intricately carved seal is from Indus Civilization, probably used for trade activities. Typically square, the obverse of most seals was engraved with mythical scenes or animals, accompanied by an average of five Indus script signs. A perforated small boss is usually on the reverse of a seal, allowing suspension via a string or a cord for portable use or secure attachment.
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2. Seal Impression: “Made by the House of Marquis Bowang” “博望家造”封泥
   Clay | Western Han dynasty (202 BC – 8 AD) ｜ Excavated in 1938 from the tomb of Zhang Qian, Western Han dynasty, Chenggu, Shaanxi province ｜ National Museum of China collection. 泥｜西汉公元（前202一公元8年）｜1938年陕西城固西汉张骞墓出土｜中国国家博物馆藏
   
   此枚封泥保存较为完整，上有“博望家造”四字隶书印文。封泥是中国古代封绒文书、物品的重要凭证，其上印章内容代表责任人或权属，具有防伪与信验功能。
   研究者认为，印文中的“博望”即“博望侯”，指因出使西域被汉武帝封爵的张骞。张骞是沟通中原与西域，开拓陆上丝绸之路的代表性人物。此枚封泥作为其家族使用的遗物，是西汉玉积极经略西域、对外开拓进取、沟通丝绸之路这一重大历史进程的直接物质印证。
   
   This well-preserved seal impression bears the clerical script inscription Bowang jia zao, meaning “Made by the House of marquis Bowang.” In early China, seal impressions were used to secure documents and goods, functioning as marks of authentication and authority.
   “Bowang” refers to marquis Bowang, the noble title granted to Zhang Qian, the envoy to the Western Regions during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. As a historical figure who pioneered the overland Silk Road and facilitated contact between China and Central Asia.
   This seal impression, likely used by his household, serves as tangible evidence of the Han dynasty’s active engagement with the Western Regions and its efforts to foster Silk Road exchanges.
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3. Copper Printing Plate for Zhiyuan Currency Notes (200 Wen) 至元通行宝钞铜钞版（贰佰文）
   Copper | Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) | National Museum of China collection. 铜｜元（公元1271 1368年）｜中国国家博物馆藏
   
   首通栏内铸有“至元通行宝钞”六字，两侧有对称宝珠火焰纹。
   中国是世界上最早流通纯纸币的国家。至元二十四年（1287年）忽必烈改发至元宝钞。元钞法开创了世界上大范围纸币流通制度之先河，在元朝统治所及的地域内全境流通。《马可•波罗游记》记载其流通广泛元 除了铸造过少量的铜钱银锭外，一直以纸钞为主，在全国范国内通行使用。这种大范国的流通，方便了元暢广美疆域内不同民族之间的贸易与往来，促进了各民族交流与融合。
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4. Cup
   Partly gilded silver | Central Asia, Golden Horde, 14th century | 4 x 12.8 x 10 cm | Asian Civilisation Museum collection
   
   This shallow cup is a lightweight, easily carried drinking vessel for a person travelling extensively on horseback. The engraved and punched decoration is remarkably fine and shows Central Asian forms adapted to Islamic taste. The gilding, intricate patterns, and decorative edging of the handle suggest that it was made for a member of the elite.It is a product of the Golden Horde, a state of the Mongol Empire that was an important culture of the Silk Route through Central Asia. The Mongol Empire was mutli-religious and embraced Buddhism,, Daoism, Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity. Thus the cup directly links China, the Middle East, Central Asia, and Europe in the 13th and 14th century.
   https://www.roots.gov.sg/Collection-Landing/listing/1324807
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5. Pottery Bowl from Caravanserai 陶碗
   Pottery | 13th-14th centuries | Excavated from the ruins in Shengeldy, Zhetysu | The National Museum of Kazakhstan collection
   
   The first exploratory excavations of the caravanserai were conducted in 2014. Based on these small excavations, archaeologists concluded that an ancient settlement once existed at this site. In 2018, the company “Archaeological Expedition” conducted scientific research at the Shengeldy Caravanserai and discovered a large number of ceramic artefacts, including fragments of pots, bowls, jugs, and other household utensils.
   2014年，考古学家对申格尔迪商队客栈遗址进行了试探性发掘，推断该遗址曾经存在一个古代聚落。2018年，“考古探险”公司在此开展了系统的考古调查，工作中发现了大量陶罐、碗、壶和日用器皿的碎片。
   申格尔迪商队客栈位于区域贸易路线的交通要冲，连接着来自哈萨克斯坦中部，东部和南部，以及中亚地区的道路。商队客栈集酒店、贸易站、仓库和设防营地于一体。它们作为丝绸之路沿线商队的重要驿站，为商人和旅行者提供食宿与安全保障。商队客栈出现于10-11世纪，多次遭遇劫掠和破坏，13世纪时因战争废弃。
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6. Bronze Mirror 铜镜
   Bronze | 2nd-1st century BC｜Excavated from Koktepa, Samarkand | The State Museum of History of Uzbekistan collection
   
   Han mirrors were distributed widely outside the Han imperial territory, with examples unearthed in Yunnan Province, China, central Asia (mostly in the Fergana Basin and Afghanistan), southeastern Europe, Mongolia and Siberia, the Korean peninsula, Japan and so on.
   
   Y. Z. Zhangsun, R.L. Liu, Z. Y. Jin, A.M. Pollard, X. Lu, P. J.Bray. et al (2017) New Chemical Research on Chinese Han Mirrors: Elemental and Lead Isotope Studies based on the Shaanxi History Museum Collections. ORA – Oxford University Research Archive https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:fcb3eba1-8819-474a-b52c-bd9cf482c22a/files/m4165a40ae25885118e31458d8eb469d1
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7. Tobol Thinker “托博尔”沉思者
   Stone | 3rd-2nd millennium BC｜Discovered in Kostanay Region｜National Museum of Kazakhstan collection
   
   1976年，在托博尔河右岸的科斯塔奈地区，这件石像由市郊“米丘林斯基”农场拖拉机手在犁地时发现。出土地点邻近一座被推土机铲平的小丘，约在农场中心区域西南两公里处。石像雕刻了一位席地而坐、仰望天空的裸体人像。生产队长V.M. 叶利谢耶夫将这件石雕移交给了科斯塔奈州历史方志博物馆。随后，考古学家G.B.兹达诺维奇和 A.A. 普列沙科夫前往现场进行实地考察和深入研究。
   研究显示，这件文物属于亚洲森林草原地带坐姿人像雕型类型，年代可追溯至公元前3千纪晚期至公元前2千纪初期。经“北哈萨克地质”协会高级地质学家Y.I.雷洛夫鉴定，这件雕塑材质为灰褐色砂岩。
   
   In 1976, a stone sculpture depicting a seated, naked human figure gazing at the sky was discovered on the right bank of the Tobol River near the city of Kostanay. The sculpture was found by machine operators from the suburban “Michurinsky” state farm while plowing the land near a hill that had been leveled by a bulldozer, approximately two kilometers southwest of the farm’s central estate. Brigadier V.M. Eliseev handed over the find to the Kostanay Regional Historical and Local History Museum. Archaeologists G.B. Zdanovich and A.A. Pleshakov later visited the site of the discovery to conduct further research.
   The artifact belongs to the group of seated anthropomorphic sculptures of forest-steppe Asia, dating to the late 3rd-early 2nd millennium BCE. Carved from grayish-brown coarse-grained stone, the sculpture has been identified as sandstone by senior geologist Y.I. Rylov from the “Sevkazgeologiya” association.
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8. Bronze Bowl with Fish and Bird Motifs 铜碗
   Bronze | 10th-11th century | The State Museum of History of Uzbekistan collection
   
   碗内底中央饰花形图案，内壁环绕鱼鸟纹。外壁以阿拉伯库法体然刻风格化铭文，两侧配饰鸟纹。
   
   The bowl features a rosette on the interior bottom, surrounded by fish and bird motifs along the walls. The exterior is adorned with a stylized inscription in Arabic Kufic script, flanked by bird motif.
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9. Lamp with Image of Buddha 佛像灯具（部件）
   Bronze | 2nd-3rd century | Excavated from Qubodiyon | National Museum of Tajikistan collection
   
   灯具四面浮雕戴三叶形王冠的头像，颈部佩戴粗大的项圈，两颊垂有辫状的发束延至肩部。灯体上半部饰有竖状纹。此灯为贵霜帝国时期制作，约公元2—3世纪。底部环绕佛陀头像，反映出佛教在贵霜时期的传播与影响。考古学界普遍认为其可能为灯具或熏香器，使用时或焚烧干花，兼具照明与熏香功用。
   
   The bronze lamp features a relief of a human head with a trefoil-shaped crown on all four sides. A thick torc adorns the neck, and braided locks hang down to the shoulders on both sides of the face. The upper part is decorated with vertical lines. This object is attributed to the Kushan Empire and dates to the 2nd-3rd century. On the lower part, a circular row of Buddha heads is depicted-evidence of the presence of Buddhism during the Kushan period. According to archaeologists, it may have served as a lamp or an incense burner, in which dried flowers were burned to provide light and pleasant aromas indoors.
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10. Pottery Bird-Shaped Askos (Water Vessel) 鸟形陶器
    Pottery 9th-10th century | Excavated from Bunjikat, Kalai Kahkaha III Fortress | The National Museum of Tajikistan collection
    
    This vessel depicts a mythological creature with three legs, a bird’» body, and an animal’s head. The chest features a rosette filled with triangles, each with a central dot. Dating to the 9th-10th century CE, it belongs to the Samanid period, the era of the first centralized Tajik state. The lower part of the handle is decorated with motifs and a swastika symbol, representing pre-Islamic culture, The colorful glaze decoration reflects the peak development of ceramic art during the Samanid dynasty.
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11. Bronze Cauldron 铜釜
    Bronze. | 1st century | Excavated from Barrow (Tomb) No. 12, Kurgan Tomb, Pesyany IV, Lemontnoye Village, Rostov Oblast | The State History Museum collection, Russia
    
    罗斯托夫州列蒙特诺耶村佩夏内四号墓地12号库尔干墓出土
    俄罗斯国家历史博物馆藏
    此釜为圆腹，高足，口沿外翻，附四耳。其中二耳为山羊形象，二耳呈环形。釜腹环饰一道凸起的绳纹带。
    萨尔马泰人以游牧为主，其葬俗是墓中需陪葬大量逝者生前所用物品或在葬仪中获赠的物品。其中，部落首领与祭司等贵族阶层的墓葬尤为突出，出土器物包括贵金属手镯与颈圈、金饰牌、兵器（含剑、匕首及箭镞）、精美马具、青铜釜，以及异域陶器、玻璃器及银器等。这些实物是萨尔马泰部落与周边地区广泛经济文化交往的明证。
    
    Cast cauldron on a high wineglass-shaped base, with an outwardly bent rim and four handles. Two handles resemble figures of goats with upward-pointing horns. A relief’ rope” belt encircles the cauldron’s body .
    The Sarmatians were primarily nomadic. Their graves have a significant number of objects that a deceased owned in life or received as a gift during the funeral ceremony.
    In graves of the nobility-chiefs and priests-archaeologists find bracelets and torcs made of precious metals, gold plaques that decorated clothing, weapons (swords, daggers, arrowheads), ceremonial horse gear, bronze cauldrons, ceramic, glass and silver imported tableware. These objects point out to the existence of broad economic and cultural ties between the Sarmatian tribes.
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12. Russian Bast Box 桦树皮箱子
    Wood | Russian North, Second half of the 18th century | The State Historical Museum collection, Russia
    桦木｜公元18世纪下半叶｜俄罗斯国家历史博物馆藏
    
    桦树皮箱子是一种古老且流传甚广的箱式器物。数个世纪以来，从沙皇宫殿到农家茅舍，遍及俄罗斯各社会阶层的家家户户。彩绘木箱始见于公元16 世纪，当时匠人开始在桦树皮箱体绘制彩色纹饰和叙事性图案。这件箱子通体饰扇形叶片与星形组合纹，局部点缀格状网纹。
    图案均以黑彩勾勒轮廓，内填绿、红、黄、白诸色。箱盖内侧用自底彩绘传统饮酒场面：一张矮桌上陈设简单器物，两侧各立一名手持酒杯的男
    
    A bast box is a traditional and widespread household item, which was used for centuries in every household by all social classes of Russia, from the tsar’s chambers to peasant houses. Painted bast boxes appeared in the 16th century, and were decorated with polychrome ornaments and narrative compositions. This box is decorated with a vibrant and lavish pattern of fan-shaped leaves and stars, covering the entire surface of the chest. The colorfulness of the pattern is achieved by a black outline densely filled with green, red, yellow, and white paints. On the inner surface of the lid, against a white background, there is a scene of wine-drinking —a traditional and widely used motif in bast box paintings. A table with a low base and simple objects on it is depicted schematically.
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13. Throne Element in Shape of Ram’s Head 公羊首形王座铜饰件
    Bronze | 5th-4th century BC | Discovered in 1979 in the riverbed of the Isfarasoy River, east of the village of Ravat in the Kanibadam | National Museum of Tajikistan collection
    
    此件可追溯至公元前5一前4世纪，时值波斯第一帝国——阿契美尼德王朝。
    羊角平缓向后弯曲（未端已折断），角基下缘饰有带刻线凸起的环带，双角錾刻年轮状交叉阴线。眼廓清晰、双眼凸出，眉弓刻画生动。颈部可见砍切痕迹。此件饰物反映了当时雕刻者的高超技艺。
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14. Carved object 雕刻件
    Wood | 5th-3rd centuries BC | Excavated from the Kurgan Cemetery No. 2 in Katanda Village, Barnaur District, Tomsk Oblast | Russian State Historical Museum collection
    
    此件器物生动刻画了一幅动物噬咬的场景：一头或为猫科猛兽，正噬咬着一只奇兽的颈部。动物噬咬纹饰是斯基泰时代一种独特的艺术形式，被称为“斯基泰一西伯利亚”动物纹饰。
    此件雕刻板在出士时与数个术马形饰物共同缝缀于一件皮毛胸兜上，其可能是衣物的装饰性带扣。类似的服饰配件在中国北方地区也多有发现，动物噬咬纹也广泛流行于中国北方服饰之上。
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15. Buckles 带扣
    Gold | 2nd-1st century BC | Excavated from Sazagan, Samarkand | State Museum of History of Uzbekistan collection
    
    带扣呈矩形，中心透雕一神兽（可能是龙）。边缘呈锯齿状，边框内侧装饰一道圆形凸棱。
    
    An openwork rectangular plaque with a cutout image of a fantastic creature (possibly a dragon). The edges are serrated, a raised rounded frame runs slightly inward from the border.
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16. Brass Astrolabe 黄铜星盘仪
    Brass | Lahore, Emperor Humayun reign (1530-1556) | Islamabad Museum collection
    
    这件星盘仪制作于胡马雍皇帝（莫卧儿帝国第二任皇帝）时期，其上饰有藤蔓花纹，几何图案及铭文。他对天文学和占星学怀有强烈的兴趣，这一点体现在他对星盘的使用上。此盘面主体刻有经纬度，波斯文/阿拉伯文和数字。星盘仪是一种重要的航海和天文测量仪器。
    
    This astrolabe was made during Emperor Humayun reign (1530-1556 CE), decorated with arabesques, geometric patterns and inscriptions. He had a passionate interest in astronomy and astrology, a trait reflected in this use of astrolabes. Engraved plates display longitudes and latitudes alongside Persian scripts and numerals. Astrolabe was a useful tool in navigation and astronomy.
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17. Tray Dish (for Emperor Alexander II) 贺寿礼盘（敬献给亚历山大二世皇帝）
    Porcelain | Russian Empire, 1866 | Made by Kornilov Brothers Porcelain Factory, St. Petersburg | Russian State Historical Museum collection
    
    盘心以多彩绘法绘亚历山大二世沙皇与玛丽亚亚历山德罗美娜皇后的组合花押字“AM”。上方饰有皇冠。花押字外国环绕描金花环，以刀桂枝与榜树枝交错编织，并以期蝶结纹饰東扎。其余部分施蓝釉，均匀分布六组描金员壳状涡卷纹饰框，框内绘多彩花卉纹样。
    盘沿背面饰有圆形涡卷纹饰框，其内用描金工艺绘星辰纹。盘外底中心刻有工厂印记、外围环绕描金花环、宽大镀金缎带和双圈弦纹。盘碟沿背面有装饰的瓷器在俄罗斯极为罕见。
    
    The center of the tray dish features a polychrome double monogram of Alexander IT and Maria Alexandrovna: “AM” beneath the imperial crown, encircled by a gilded wreath of laurel and oak branches tied with a ribbon.
    The rest of the surface of the tray’s front is decorated with blue underglaze and six polychrome floral bouquets within gilded rocaille cartouches. The reverse side of the rim bears a gilded ornament of stars in circular cartouches. The factory mark at the base center is enclosed in a gilded floral wreath, a broad gilded ribbon and two border lines. Such elaborate decoration on the back side of Russian porcelain plates and trays is exceptional.
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18. Vase with A Portrait of Empress Alexandra Feodorovna 亚历山德拉•费奥多罗美娜皇后肖像花瓶
    Porcelain | Russian Empire, Second half of the 1830s | St. Petersburg, Imperial Porcelain Factory | Russian State Historical Museum collection
    
    花瓶配以青铜底座，瓶腹下部饰有浮雕描金莨苕叶纹饰；通体施绿松石色釉，一侧绘身着俄罗斯传统服饰、头戴科科什尼克饰物与面纱的亚历山德拉•费奥多罗美娜皇后肖像；另一侧饰茛苕叶环绕的棕榈叶纹饰，所有纹饰轮廓均描金装饰。
    这幅亚历山德拉•费奥多罗美娜皇后的肖像，其蓝本源自1838年普鲁士画家弗朗茨•克吕格（1797-1857）创作的油画。这幅肖像出现频率最高、最受欢迎的亚历山德拉•费奥多罗美娜皇后的官方礼仪画像。
    
    It is a crater-shaped vase with two handles and relief gilded acanthuses in the lower part of the body, on a bronze base. The vase is decorated with turquoise underglaze.
    On one side, there is a polychrome portrait of Empress Alexandra Feodorovna in a Russian dress and kokoshnik with a veil. On the other—a composition of palmettes surrounded by acanthuses; the details are fully gilded.
    The porcelain depiction of Empress Alexandra Feodorovna in Russian attire derives from numerous engravings and lithographs based on an 1838 original portrait painted by the German artist Franz Krüger (1797-1857). This particular portrait became the most replicated representation and the most popular ceremonial image of the Russian empress.
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19. Yangzeshan Yuan, Influences Between Chinese Ming and Qing Dynasty Porcelain and European Rococo Style. Canadian International School of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China. SHS Web of Conferences 199, 04006 (2024) ICLRC 2024. https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202419904006. https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/pdf/2024/19/shsconf_iclrc2024_04006.pdf
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20. Blue-and-White Basin with Floral Scroll Design 青花缠枝花卉纹折沿盆
    Porcelain | Yongle reign (1403—1424), Ming dynasty | National Museum of China collection.
    瓷器｜明永乐（公元1403—1424年）｜中国国家博物馆藏
    
    盆折沿，直壁，平底。通体青花装饰。折沿盆为永乐创新式样，形制仿自伊朗黄铜折沿盆。造型简洁大气，纹饰清晰洗练，充分体现了永乐制瓷技术的最高水平。
    明初郑和下西洋带回的苏麻离青钻料，为青花瓷器提供了优质色料。此类折沿盆是中外技术融合的代表性器物，集中体现了明初在文化融合，技术创新和审美趣味上的发展面貌，也实证了中华文明长期保持开放包容的特性。
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21. “Golden Man”(Reconstruction)
    Gold | 5th-4th centuries BC | Excavated from Issyk Kurgan, Zhetysu | The National Museum of Kazakhstan collection
    
    The “Armor of the Golden Man” is a reconstructed suit of Scythian armor dating to the 3rd-4th Century BCE. The “Golden Warrior” is a masterpiece of Scythian-Saka “animal style” jewelry craftsmanship. It’s discovered in 1969-1970 during the excavations of the Issyk Kurgan near the city of Almaty under the direction of archaeologist Kemal Akishev, The warrior’s attire is adorned with over four-thousand gold plaques, crafted with various metalworking techniques, including casting, forging, stamping, chasing, engraving, granulation, embossing, and carving.
    
    An account by the Greek historian Herodotus noted that Scythian warriors who fought for the Persian Empire in the 5th century BC noted that they wore tall pointed hats (Persian art depicting Scythians also included pointed hats), while Greek pottery depicts Scythian warriors wearing trousers and long-sleeved jackets fastened with strips of cloth or leather. Other Greek art depicts Scythians wearing the generic clothing Greek artists used symbolizes most peoples of the Near East. The Scythians themselves created art depicting their culture’s clothing; Scythian self depiction focused heavily on clothing used by Scythian warriors, such as armor. Stone sculptures attributed to the Scythians depict Scythians wearing armor of various quality, bracelets, tunics and kaftans. Some art depicts Scythians as wearing narrow-laced boots around their ankles and feet. Gleba, Margarita (January 2008). “You Are What You Wear: Scythian Costume as Identity”. Dressing the Past.
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22. Kipchak Warrior 钦察武士服装（复制品）
    Textile | 10th-14th centuries | Excavated from Kyzylorda Region, Kyzyl—Zhuldyz, Kurgans 2 and 3 | The National Museum of Kazakhstan collection.
    纺织品｜公元10—14世纪｜克孜勒奥尔达州克孜勒一朱尔迪兹2号和3号墓葬出土｜哈萨克斯坦国家博物馆藏
    
    这套钦察武士服装是根据哈萨克斯坦和乌克兰墓葬中出土的实物样貌复原面成的。武士头報高帽缨半球形金属头盔，金属面具在眼、口、象处设有开口，保护链甲自头盔延伸至颈部。武士身着一件长及膝盖、半臂袖长的锁子甲，以饰有金属片的皮腰带绑缚，腰带上挂打火石和一把带鞘匕首，带扣刻有翼狮。左侧佩带带鞘军刀、箭囊及弓，以细皮带固定。
    金属护膝和一双高简软皮靴提供更强的防御力，也便于灵活移动。
    这套精心制作的盔甲反映了钦察武士在骑战和搏斗中的高度适应性，凸显出其在中世纪欧亚大陆的卓越工艺、军事技能以及深远影响。
    
    The battle attire of a Kipchak warrior has been reconstructed based on burial finds from Kazakhstan and Ukraine. The warrior wears a semi-spherical metal helmer with a high straight crest (sultan). A metal mask covers the face, with openings for the eyes nostrils, and mouth. A mail aventail (barma) extends from the helmet to protect the neck. A long coat-like chainmail shirt reaches the knees, with mid-forearm-length sleeves. A leather belt is decorated with large metal plagues, with a fire striker and dagger in a sheath as attachments. The buckle consists of two massive plates featuring an engraving of a winged lion. A saber in a sheath and quiver (saadak) with a how, carried on the left side using thin leather straps. Metal knee guards (poleyn) provides extra leg protection. A pair of high, soft leather boots offers flexibility and mobiling.
    This meticulously crafted armor reflects the Kipchak warrior’s adaptability in both mounted and hand-to-hand combat, highlighting their superior craftsmanship military expertise, and influence in medieval Eurasia.
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23. Armour and Helmet By Qianlong Emperor 乾隆大阅甲冑
    Textile｜Qianlong reign (1736-1795), Qing dynasty｜National Museum of China collection. 纺织品｜清乾隆（公元1736一1795年）｜中国国家博物馆藏
    
    大阅甲胄是清代皇帝在每三年一次的八旗军检网时所穿着的戎装和头盔。大阔甲由甲褂。甲裙、左右护肩.前逃缝，左逃缝，左右甲袖组成。
    此甲采用了正戗针、桂花针、平金等多种绣法，代表了清乾隆时代织造、刺绣工艺的最高水平。
    清代大阅制度始于皇太极时，目的是壮军威，鼓士气。大阔时，皇帝全副武装，检阅八旗军诸多兵种。乾隆四年（1739年），乾隆帝着大阅甲胄在南苑检阅八旗军，宫廷画家意大利人郎士宁等曾专绘《乾隆皇帝大阅图》，以纪大阅之盛景。
    
    This ceremonial armour was worn by the Qing emperor during the triennial Grand Inspection (dayue) of the Eight Banners. The suit includes the cuirass, skirt, shoulder guards, front and side flaps, and arm guards. Embroidered with 63 dragons and motifs of ruyi clouds, waves, cliffs, coral, and jewels, it employs techniques such as zhengxiang (direct slanted stitch), osmanthus stitch, and flat gold couching, representing the peak of Qianlong-period textile craftsmanship.
    The Grand Inspection system began under Hong Taiji to display imperial military power and boost morale. By Qianlongs reign, tens of thousands of Manchu, Mongol, and Han bannermen participated in drills of artillery, musketry, mounted archery, and formations. In 1739, the emperor wore this armour at Nanyuan to review the troops, an event recorded by Giuseppe Castiglione (Lang Shining) in The Qianlong Emperor Reviewing the Troops.
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24. Helmut 青铜头盔
    Bronze | 7th-6th century BC | | Russia, Kuban province (3) (Place of discovery unknown) | The State Historian Museum collection, Russia.
    
    A cast helmet of a hemispherical shape with a short pointed nasal guard belongs to the items of combat gear of the Scythian era. The front side with the supraorbital arches is framed by a relief roller, which served as a stiffening rib ending in a loop. In the back of the helmet, there is a cutout along the edge. Ar the base of the helmer, there are through holes for attaching cheek pieces and a neck flap.
    This helmet belongs to the so-called “Kuban” type (most similar helmets were found in Kuban region). Such helmets are hallmarks of the early Scythian culture. The origin of the “Kuban” type helmets is associated with the bronze culture in northern provinces of China during the early Western Zhou period.
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25. EVOLUTION OF THE COMBAT HELMET. 15.05.2024. https://www.nfmgroup.no/news/evolution-of-the-combat-helmet
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26. Valchak S.B., Muravenko E.V. A NEW FIND OF A KUBAN-TYPE HELMET FROM THE NORTHWEST CAUCASUS // Russian Archaeology. – 2023. – N. 4. – P. 144-157. doi: 10.31857/S0869606323030200
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27. Shield with Depictions of Angels 装饰守护神像的盾牌
    Metal | 16th—18th centuries | National Museum of Tajikistan collection
    
    这面圆形金属盾牌保存良好，外表装饰精美。中央饰有五个头像：
    二个位于正中，四个环绕其周围。头像口、桑、眼、眉似人，皆向中心纹饰发散锯齿状光芒盾牌四各有两位带翅膀的人物相对而立，呈半坐姿态，似乎手持物品，形似天使。图像以黄色线条勾勒。盾牌边缘环绕花卉纹样及阿拉伯铭文。
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28. Female Deity (Terracotta) 陶女神像
    Pottery｜3500-3000 BC｜Mehrgarh, Balochistan｜Islamabad Museum collection. 陶器｜公元前3500—3000年｜俾路支省梅赫尔格尔遗址出土｜巴基斯坦伊斯兰堡博物馆藏
    这是一尊女性陶，可能是母亲神。发型夸张繁复，佩藏饰物。其突出的臀部和胸部造型，象征着生育与繁衍。
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29. Jain Ritual Pool (Terracotta) 陶制耆那教仪式水池
    Pottery | 200 BC-200 AD | Excavated from Sirkap, Taxila | Islamabad Museum collection
    
    这件耆那教水池四角矗立油灯，内设台阶，四边池沿可见鸟类栖息的痕迹。水池代表了自然中的土、气、火、水四大元素及万物众生：用于制作水池的陶土象征大地，鸟类喻示空气，四角油灯表征火焰，池中之水和水生生物则明指水与生命本源。
    This Jain ritual tank is surmounted by small lamps at four corners, with steps set inside. Traces of birds perched on the rims remain. The tank emblematizes four natural elements (earth, air, fire and water) and all creation. Earth is symbolized by the material of the tank, air by birds, fire by lamps, and water by itself and the aquatic
    creatures.
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30. Chalice 圣餐杯
    Gilt silver | 16th century | National Historical Museum of Belarus collection
    
    16世纪纳瓦赫鲁达克东正教堂的圣餐银杯，是白俄罗斯较晚阶段宗教艺术的重要代表。杯身镌刻献辞：“格里戈里一谢科特敬献此杯及圣盘、圣匙于纳瓦赫鲁达克圣母教堂，愿主垂怜。”此杯为中世纪仅存两件保存完好的圣杯之一，采用当时盛行的哥特式风格。遗憾的是，与之配套的圣盘与圣匙已遗失不存。
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31. Stone Stele of Buddha 太和释迦石造像
    Stone | 14th year of the Taihe reign (490), Northern Wei dynasty | National Museum of China collection. 石雕｜北魏太和十四年（公元490年）｜中国国家博物馆藏
    
    造像背屏式、高浮雕，正面雕一佛二菩萨，主尊为释迦摩尼跣足立于台座上，水波纹发式（中间为涡卷纹，两侧为水波纹），法相端庄，两耳垂肩，身着通肩式大衣，右手施无畏印，左手持袈裟一角。胁待菩萨立于两侧。左胁侍菩萨左手持净水瓶，右手持拂尘。右胁侍菩萨左手托物（似钵或舍利西），右手持净水瓶。其后为火焰纹背光和圆形顶光，背光上分层刻有忍冬纹、火焰纹，身旁及头都周围刻有飞天等。背上部雕佛像头光和身光，头光由内圈的莲瓣和外圈的坐佛组成，身光处雕刻对称的飞天.边缘为火焰纹.顶部缺失，推测也应雕刻有坐佛。
    
    This high-relief stone stele depicts a central Buddha flanked by two bodhisattvas. The right hand is raised in the abhaya mudra (gesture of fearlessness), and the left hand holds one corner of the monk’s robe (Kasaya). The bodhisattvas stand on either side, each holding an attribute.
    The figures are framed by a flaming mandorla carved with layered honeysuckle and flame motifs, surrounded by flying apsaras. The upper section of the stele, now missing, likely featured a seated Buddha within the mandorla, flanked by symmetrical apsaras.The head mandorla consists of an inner circle of lotus petals and an outer circle of seated Buddhas, while the body mandorla is decorated with symmetrical flying apsaras and edged with flame motifs.
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32. Buddha Head (Stucco) 灰泥佛首造像
    Stucco | 3rd-4th century | Excavated from Kalawan, Taxila | National Museum Islamabad collection
    
    这尊灰泥佛首呈现出典型的造像特征：波浪状发警后梳，头顶肉醫尤为醒日，长耳垂是其最显著的特征之一（这是佛陀三十二种“大人相”之一），半垂的眼窮令观者心生静穆之感。造像下颌、双唇与高挺的身梁反映出希腊化风格的影响。如今，我们在佛陀微笑的嘴唇上仍可看见红色颜料的痕迹。
    
    The Buddha head exhibits characteristic iconography; wavy hair combed backward, crowned with a prominent usnisa (raised hair–knot). Elongated earlobes are dominant features of his great bodily marks, Downcast eyes impart profound serenity to onlookers. The depiction of chin, lips and sharp nose reveals Hellenistic influences. Traces of red color pigment is still visible on the gently smiling lips.
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33. Narrative Relief of Sakyamuni Buddha 释迦牟尼本生故事浮雕
    Stone｜200-500 AD ｜Gandhara｜Islamabad Museum collections
    
    浮雕顶部呈拱形，其上雕刻两则佛陀本生故事。上部描绘释迦牟尼度化龙王阿波逻罗的情景。阿波逻罗端坐于饰有狮首图案的水池中，双手合十敬礼佛，一条巨大的那伽（蛇神）展开蛇身为其蔽。佛陀站立左侧，其旁为金刚手菩萨和一名顶礼信众。
    下部雕刻佛陀坐于高座之上，画面中央的菩提树是其语道之处。此树被认为是某位神祗的居所，受到民众的膜拜。图中这位神从菩提树与祭坛中显圣，向佛陀顶礼致敬。祭坛上覆盖着吉祥草（通常在祭祀场景中出现）。祭坛基座雕刻地母从地面显现出来，恭敬地跪伏在佛陀面前。
    底层雕有五尊坐佛，均结禅定印。五佛即密教中的五方佛，又称“五智如来”。
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34. Ivory Buddhist Votive Stele 印度牙雕佛传故事造像
    Ivory | 7th century | Collected from Yulin Grottos, Anxi, Gansu province | National Museum of China collection. 象牙｜公元7世纪｜甘肃安西榆林窟采集｜中国国家博物馆藏
    
    此造像材质为象牙，为便携式佛教造像，应制作于印度。造像用两片象牙雕成，以合叶相连。合上是一头圆雕大象，身驮持塔、衣着华丽的人物，表现“八王分舍利”；打开则每片各分27格，以连环画的形式依次浮雕佛传故事。佛教自两汉之际传入中国至南北朝、隋朝时得到较大发展，来自西亚的僧侣、或 贡使团往来不绝于道。此类小型牙雕造像便于携带，當作为僧侣或贡使团随身供奉的圣物。它们是早期佛教信仰在中国传播的重要载体和见证，实证了中华文明的开放性。
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35. Gold Mask 黄金面具
    Gold, carnelian | 4th-early 6th centuries | 20.4 cm x15.3 cm | Excavated from Chui Valley, Burial site of Shamsi | National History Museum of the Kyrgyz Republic collection
    
    这件面具的主人是一位贵族女性。面具以整片金箔锤揲而成，双眼镶嵌浅黄色玛瑙，挺直的鼻梁为单独制作后镶接，嘴部以凹槽勾勒轮廓。面部装饰松枝纹样，象征着“生命之树”。The mask belonged to a noblewoman. It was hammered from a single piece of gold leaf, with eyes inlaid with light yellow agate, a straight nose that was made separately and then attached, and the mouth outlined with grooves. The face is decorated with pine branch patterns, symbolizing the “Tree of Life”.
    https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/1995625866395395445
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36. Funeral Mask 墓葬面具
    5th-6th century | Excavated from Russia, Khakas Autonomous Region, Abakan district, Uybat village, Charkov ulus, Uybat burial ground I | The State Historial Museum collections, Russia
    
    The forehead, temples, cheeks, lips, nostrils and ears of this female funeral mask are painted red. A red pattern is painted on the nose, a spiral and volutes are scraped out on the forehead and temples against the red background. The eye slits as well as the edges of the mask (above the ears), the bottom of the cheeks, and part of the neck are painted blue.
    The mask belonged to the Tashtyk archaeological culture. Funeral masks were a tradition of preserving the appearance of the deceased and buried according to the cremation ritual. Women’s masks were painted in red, blue and white.
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37. Pottery Mask 面具
    Pottery | 10th-12th centuries | Excavated from Keder | National Museum of Kazakhstan collection
    
    Ancient city of Keder was one of the important medieval settlements in the middle course of Syr Darya (Jaxartes). As a result of the archaeological excavations in Otyrar Oasis, the location of the ancient city of Keder was revealed at the mound of Kuyruktobe in the district of Otyrar at Turkestan Region of Kazakhstan. A palatial complex on the citadel of Keder was unearthed in 1980 and it is dated between 7th and 9th centuries AD according to ceramic assemblage that were found under the ground of the throne hall.
    
    KUTLU, M. (2023). Keder (Kuyruktöbe) Şehrindeki Göktürk Dönemi Sarayı – The Palace of Turkic Khaganate at Keder (Kuyruktobe). In Prof. Dr. Bozkurt Ersoy Armağanı (pp. 321–335). Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18439478
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38. Sasanian Silver Coin 波斯萨珊银币
    Coin | Khosrow I (ca. 488-531) | Excavated in 1956 from the tomb of Sui Liu and his wife in Liu Jiaqu, Shanxian, Henan province | National Museum of China collection. 钱币｜库思老一世（约公元488—531年）｜1956年河南陕县刘家渠隋刘伟夫妇墓出土｜ 中国国家博物馆藏
    
    银币正面刻库思老一世右面半身像，头戴火焰齿冠。边缘饰联珠纹，分布三处新月徽记（代表祆教月神）。背面中央为袄教祭火坛，火焰中无神像（区别于早期萨珊银币），坛柱系吉祥带。两侧立祭司，戴椭圆高冠，手持长剑抵地。
    波斯萨珊银币在中国境内出土多达上千枚。魏晋至隋唐时期，其随着丝绸之路流入中国，作为跨境贸易的支付货币，深度参与了丝绸之路跨文明贸易，促进了中国与中亚的经济互动，体现了中华文明演进中的包容性特征。
    The obverse features a right-facing bust of Khosrow I wearing a flame-topped crenellated crown, symbolizing xwärrah, the divine radiance in Zoroastrian belief. The border is decorated with a dotted pearl pattern with three crescent symbols referencing the Zoroastrian moon deity. The reverse shows a fire altar without a divine image—unlike earlier Sasanian coins-flanked by two attendants wearing tall oval headdresses, each holding a sword with tip on the ground.
    Thousands of Sasanian silver coins have been unearthed in China. From the Wei and Jin periods to the Tang dynasty, these coins entered China via the Silk Roads, serving as cross-border currency and facilitating transregional trade. Their circulation attests to early Eurasian economic interconnectivity and the inclusive nature of Chinese civilization in cross-cultural exchange.
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39. Chinvat Bridge: The Zoroastrian Path to Judgement and Beyond
    
    Shyeitibyo vizhibyo iratu [ish] dvafsho,
    Hvo dereza merethyaush, mazishto, moshu-cha astu.
    
    (May tribulations vanish evermore;
    May He (Zarathushtra), the Greatest, lead us all again;
    Greatest is He, for He hath conquered Death.)
    
    Zoroastrianism has its origins in the distant past, developing from an ancient religion that was once shared by the ancestors of tribes that settled in Iran. The religion is thought to have taken root in Central Asia during the second millennium BCE, spreading south across the Iranian plateau as far as western Iran, where it became the foremost religion of the Achaemenid, Parthian and Sasanian empires, alongside engaging with Judaism and early Christianity and Islam.
    The Chinvat Bridge, also known as the “Bridge of the Separator,” the final destination and judgement of the soul and of humankind is central to Zoroastrian afterlife beliefs. The Chinvat Bridge symbolizes the ultimate judgement and the idea that one’s actions in life directly influence their fate in the afterlife. It serves as a spiritual doctrine that souls must traverse after death. This bridge is not merely a passage but a symbolic representation of moral judgement and the afterlife journey in Zoroastrian beliefs.
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40. Ossuary with Carving of Chinvat Bridge (Zoroastrianism) 纳骨瓷
    Ceramic | 6th-7th century | Excavated from Sivaz, Kitab District, Kashkadarya | The State Museum of History of Uzbekistan collection.
    
    纳骨瓮呈长方体形，带锯齿状柄盖。器身一侧刻画的是一个共计10人的复杂场景，分为三组画面。中央场景描绘一位头戴王冠的人坐在铺有毯毯的兽形王座上，王座由两只公羊支撑，其一手持祭坛，手持权杖。两侧各有一跪姿人物，分别为舞者和竖琴师。惜食另一面刻画祭司行火祭场景及一骑马者俯身向祭坛的场景。
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41. Wudu (Ritual Ablution): This is the Islamic procedure for cleansing parts of the body before prayer (Salah) or reading the Quran. It involves washing the right hand three times followed by the left, before rinsing the mouth and nose.
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42. Bassel Molaeb,  Cultural Impact of Hand Hygiene in the Middle East. October 2, 2023 
    https://www.cleanmiddleeast.ae/top-stories/infection-control/cultural-impact-of-hand-hygiene-in-the-middle-east
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43. Bronze Pan (Water Vessel) of Zi Zhong Jiang 子仲姜盘
    Bronze | Early Spring and Autumn (770-the first half of 7th century BCE) | Dimensions – H:18cm, D: 45cm, Wt:12.4kg | Shanghai Museum Collection, Gift of Mr. Sunny Yip in 1997. 青铜｜春秋早期（公元前770年一前7世纪上半叶）｜高18厘米，口径45厘米，重12.4千克｜上海博物馆藏，1997年叶肇夫先生捐赠
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44. Yi (water vessel) of Marquis of Qi 齐侯匜
    Bronze | Late Western Zhou (the first half of 9th century-771 BCE) | Shanghai Museum Collection, Gift of Mr. Gu Liu, Ms. Shen Tongyue et al. 青銅｜西周晚期（公元前9世纪上半叶一前771年）｜上海博物館藏，顾榴先生 沈同樾女士等捐赠
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45. Traditional Bridal Headdress “SAUKELE” 传统新娘头饰“Saukele”
    Felt, silver gemstones, glass | 20th century | Discovered in Southern Kazakhstan, made by Altynbek Kumarov | National Museum of Kazakhstan collection. 毛毡、银宝石、玻璃｜公元20世纪｜哈萨克斯坦南部发现阿尔金别克。库马罗夫制作｜哈萨克斯坦国家博物馆藏
    
    Saukele是一种高约70厘米、呈锥形的传统新娘头饰，其上镶有银片、宝石和玻璃。作为最古老的传统头饰之一，直到19世纪末仍被哈萨克女性所使用。这种仪式性的头饰仅在女性婚后初期佩戴，之后她们会改戴一种更简单实用的头饰，称为“zhelek”。待生育后则会佩戴第三种头饰，即“kimeshek”。
    “Saukele”由“sau”（意为“兌整”或“全部”）和“kele”（意为“顶部”或“塔”）两部分组成。主体由致密的毛毯制成，表面覆盖织物，并饰有玻璃、红玉髓、玉髓和银饰。
    
    The Saukele is a tall, cone-shaped bridal headdress, approximately 70 cm in height, adorned with silver inlays, gemstones and glass, It has been one of the oldest traditional headpieces worn by Kazakh women until the late 19th century. This ceremonial headdress is worn only during the initial period after marriage, after which women transition to a simpler and more practical head covering called thelek. After giving birth, a woman then adopts a third type of headpiece known as kimeshek.
    The saukele consists of two parts: sau (meaning “whole” or “complete”) and kele (meaning “top” or “tower”). Its frame is made of dense felt covered with fabric and decorated with glass, carnelian, chalcedony, and silver.
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46. Headdress “Tojduzi” 头饰“托朱兹”
    Gemstones | Early 20th century | The State Museum of Arts of Uzbekistan collection
    宝石｜公元20世纪初 ｜乌兹别克斯坦国家艺术博物馆藏
    
    这件头饰呈“A”字型，正面饰有各色镶嵌物，边缘装饰有串珠吊坠。
    This ornament is set with polychrome stones and edged with beaded pendants.
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47. Traditional Woman’s Pectoral Ornament 传统女性胸饰
    Late 19th century | National Museum of Kazakhstan collection
    
    该胸饰由三个主体部分和七个坠饰组成，通过灵活的环扣相互连接。从下至上，第一个构件形态复杂，由心形和泪滴形部件组成，其上装饰有三个高座镶嵌物：两个椭圆形和一个泪滴形，均为仿红玉髓的玻璃制品。镶座高0.2厘米，焊接在底板上，上缘折卷包裹镶嵌物，并饰有冲压形成的扭纹、珠状和光滑金丝细工纹样。此构件下通过短链悬垂七个马爪形和花瓣形吊坠。第二个构件为矩形，镶嵌有两个仿红玉髓的椭国形玻璃饰品，制作工艺与 第一个构件相同。两侧小环为穿链而用。连接上下两部分。第三个构件为两个椭圆形，各自中心都有一个圆形玻璃镶嵌物。在两个椭圆之间，有一个由白色金属制成的横向插饰，链子由此向下延伸，通过环扣连接到中央主体。
    
    The piece consists of three main elements and seven pendants, flexibly connected by loops and rings. The first element has a complex shape, combining a heart-like figure that transitions into a teardrop shape. It is adorned with three high-set inlays, two oval and one teardrop-shaped. The inlays are made of glass imitating carnelian. The settings, 0.2 cm in height, are soldered onto the plate, with their upper edges crimped around the inlays and decorated with stamped twisted, beaded and smooth filigree.
    Seven pendants in the form of bird claws and petals, attached to short chains, dangle from this element. The second element is rectangular and decorated with two oval glass inlays imitating carnelian. It is embellished in the same manner as the first element. This part of the piece has small loops on the sides, through which a chain passes, connecting the upper and lower elements. The third element consists of two paired ovals, each featuring a round glass inlay at the center. Between the ovals, there is a transverse insert made of white metal. Chains extend downward from it, attached with loops, and connect to the central element.
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48. Man’s Gold Embroidered Robe 男式金线刺绣长袍
    Velvet | 1900-1905 | Made in Bukhara | The State Museum of Arts of Uzbekistan collection
    
    这是一件用半透明丝绒制成的男式长袍，浅色底面上绣有红色绒线花纹。长袍背部中央绣有一个圆形微章，其内绣花形纹饰。
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49. Fragment of Writing Tablet (Replica) 泥板文书碎片（复制品）
    Clay | 2nd century BC-4th century AD | Kultobe Settlement, Southern Kazakhstan | National Museum of Kazakhstan collection.
    
    这块泥板文书用一种古老的字母写成，可能源于阿拉米语，反映出该地区受到中亚、波斯和希腊地区语言文化的影响。文字在泥板烧制前刻写于软黏土上，表明该地区有着既定的书面交流传统。这种铭文的存在表明库勒塔佩的古代居民在经济、政治和宗教活动中积极使用文宇。类似的泥板可能用于记录保存通信往来或法律文书等内容。作为哈萨克斯坦早期文字记录的重要实物，这件文物证明该地区远在中世纪之前便已形成发达的书写文化。
    The inscription is written in an ancient script, possibly of Aramaic origin. This suggests linguistic and cultural influences from central Asia, Persia, and the Hellenistic world The tablet features text engraved on soft clay before firing, indicating an established tradition of written communication in the region. The presence of such inscriptions confirms that writing was actively used in economic, administrative, and religious practices of the ancient inhabitants of Kultobe. Similar tablets were likely employed for record-keeping, correspondence, or legal documentation. This artifact stands as valuable evidence of early literacy in Kazakhstan, demonstrating that a developed writing culture existed in the region long before the medieval period.
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50. Decorated Tray 装饰托盘
    Bronze | 19th century | National Museum of Tajikistan collection.
    
    方形托盘中央为一矩形图形，其内錾刻舞蹈场景。矩形图案四局共设有33个圆形开光，每个开光内均刻画一名姿态各异的骑士。托盘边缘饰有阿拉伯文字及人物图案。
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51. Ink Bottle 墨水瓶
    Copper | 16th-18th centuries | National Museum of Tajikistan collection
    
    这件手工铜制墨水瓶的两侧均配有盖子，中央及上部饰波浪形纹饰，并附一个独立的带盖矩形容器。抄写员曾用它来存放撰写书籍和论著所用的墨水。
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52. Pencil Case 笔盒
    Copper | 19th century | National Museum of Tajikistan collection.
    
    铜制矩形笔盒，用于存放铅笔与钢笔。边缘饰有几何与植物纹样，顶部門边装饰水平波浪线，盒面以纳斯塔利克体书写四行波斯语诗句。诗中描绘了多种叶片与植物，这些元素在书法艺术中常被广泛运用。
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53. Seal with Sogdian Inscription 粟特铭文印章
    Bronze | 7th century | Excavated from the ruins of Ancient Panjakent, Tajikistan | National Museum of Tajikistan collection.
    
    Rectangular in form, the seal bears a two-word Sogdian inscription on the front. A perforated handle is attached to the reverse, likely for suspension or handling. Such stamps were commonly used in the region during the medieval period for sealing documents or marking property. 
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54. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sogdia, accessed 2 Apr 2026
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55. https://sogdians.si.edu/introduction/
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56. The leading Sogdian merchants, the Sabao 萨保, were appointed community leaders. They were buried in tombs with stone beds and sarcophagi that, like Sogdian ossuaries and painting, depicted the pleasures of the material world and of the next life. Sogdian funerary furniture found in China typically features religious, Buddhist and/or Zoroastrian themes, banquet/feasting, or processions and hunting.
    https://live2makan.com/2024/08/14/treasures-painted-gold-leafed-stone-couch-with-three-sided-screen-northern-zhou-dynasty/
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57. Fragment of Wall Painting 壁画残片
    7th century | Excavated from Afrasiab, Samarkand | The State Museum of History of Uzbekistan collection.
    
    壁画残片上绘有一名战士的四分之三侧面头像，戴圆锥形头盔。面部呈椭圆形，鼻梁高挺，黑瞳杏眼，细眉连于鼻梁上方。薄髭，蓄小须。
    A three-quarter depiction of a warrior’s profile, wearing a conical helmet. The oval face features a straight nose and almond-shaped eyes with black pupils. Thin eyebrows meet above the bridge of the nose. The warrior has a thin mustache and a small beard.
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58. In the 1st-3rd centuries, the territory of southern Uzbekistan became an important part of the Kushan Empire, where crafts, trade and urban development flourished. During this period, one of the centres of Buddhism was formed here, which was reflected in the construction of religious buildings—Fayoztepa, Karatepa, Zurma, as well as temples in Dalvarzintepa and Zartepa.
    
    公元前1000年左右，今乌兹别克斯坦境内逐渐形成了巴克特里亚、花刺子模、粟特、察赤和费尔干纳等重要历史文化区域。这些地区发展成为稳定的定居农业中心。公元前
    7一前4世纪期间，第一批城市兴起，标志着该地区早期国家形态的诞生。
    自公元前2世纪起，这里成为连接中国、印度与地中海世界的重要枢纽，极大地促进
    了东西方商品、知识和文化传统的交流。
    公元1一3世纪，今乌兹别克斯坦南部成为贵霜帝国的重要组成部分。这一时期，当地手工艺、贸易和城市建设蓬勃发展。与此同时，这里还成为重要的佛教中心，这反映在法尤兹帖帕、卡拉帖帕、祖尔玛，以及达尔瓦津帖帕、扎尔帖帕等佛寺遗址的建筑上。
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59. The Samanid State (819-999) holds landmark significance in the history of the Tajiks, as the first political entity to unite the lands of the ancestors of the modern Tajik people, playing a crucial role in shaping their ethnic and cultural identity. During the Samanid era, literature, science, architecture. and ceramic art flourished, while the cities of Bukhara and Samarkand grew into major cultural and commercial centers of the region.
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60. Stone with Sogdian Inscription 刻有粟特语铭文石块
    Stone | 7th-8th century | Excavated from ruins of Ancient Panjakent | National Museum of Tajikistan collection
    
    石块上以粟特语书写“提什法尔恩，沃胡什瓦尔达之子”字样，出土于片治肯特古城。此物见证了粟特人（塔吉克族的祖先）在公元5—8世纪已经创造出成熟的文字体系。铭文共三行，使用黑色墨水书写，保存状况良好。其书体风格优美，推测出自职业书法家之手。
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61. Yellow-Glazed Central Asian-Style Clay Figurine 黄釉陶胡俑
    Pottery | Tang dynasty (618-907) | Excavated in 1957 from the tomb of Xianyu Tinghui, Tang dynasty, Xi’an, Shaanxi province | National Museum of China collection. 陶器｜唐（公元618—907年）｜1957年陕西西安唐鲜于庭诲墓出土｜中国国家博物馆藏
    
    深目高鼻、髯须卷发、头戴毡帽、身着胡服、肩负皮囊….这是我们在博物馆中常见的隋唐时期的胡人陶俑形象。
    胡人俑是隋唐陆上丝绸之路空前繁荣与人员大规模双向流动的直接写照。胡人多来自中亚、西亚甚至更远的地区，常以商贾、驭手、乐师、待从、军官等形象出现在隋唐长安、洛阳城中，构成了隋唐都城的多元景观。作为欧亚大陆文明交融的缩影，胡人俑以鲜活且丰富的异域人物形象，实证盛唐开放包容的对外政策，彰显出中华文明的包容特性。
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