Several tombs near the Eastern Jin capital at modern Nanjing have pictures of the eccentric ‘seven sages‘ depicted in the brick walls. Each one of the figures is labeled and shown drinking, writing, or playing a musical instrument, despite the world is crumbling around them.
Picture of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove 竹林七贤砖印模画
Clay | Southern Dynasties (420-589) | Excavated from Tomb of the Southern Dynasties in Gongshan, Xishanqiao, Nanjing (1960) | Nanjing Museum collection. 粘土砖｜南朝（公元420-589年）1｜一组高78厘米，长242.5厘米，二组高78厘米，长241.5厘米｜1960年南京西善桥宫山南朝墓出土｜南京博物院藏
The“Seven Sages of Bamboo Forest” depicts the seven famous scholars in the Wei and Jin Dynasties (c. 220-420), with the inclusion of Rong Qiqi who was from the Spring and Autumn Period (c.770–481 BC). The brick painting was originally distributed on the north and south walls of the tomb, each of which was made of nearly 300 bricks, with uniform specifications. Besides the seven sages, there’s the drawing of Rong Qiqing, a Taoist recluse that was from another era. This “abnormal” inclusion reflects the philosophy of the tomb owner. 2
Closer study of the characters depicted on the wall, their sitting posture, hand placements, naked torsos and human figures, etc, these characteristics are seldom found in the figure drawings in mainland China prior to this period. However, along the cities of the ancient Silk Road like Datong, Xi’an, Jiuquan, Dunhuang, etc, these style of figure paintings are more common. 3
Of the six sets of brick paintings discovered with the same theme, only this set is complete and assembled correctly.4 These eight people sat on the ground, each with their own demeanour. Each person’s name is marked next to his image, separated by ginkgo, pine, cypress, willows and other trees. It is one integrated set of large-scale brick paintings that are both independent and harmonious.5
Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove 竹林七贤
Who were these people actually? As is traditionally depicted, a certain group of seven scholar/musician/poets wishing to escape the intrigues, corruption and stifling atmosphere of court life during the politically fraught Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history habitually gathered in the obscurity of a bamboo grove near the house of Xi Kang (aka Ji Kang) in Shanyang (now in Henan province). Here they enjoyed practicing their works, and enjoying the simple, rustic life, always with much alcohol .
嵇康 Jī Kāng (223–262)
Ji Kang was the spiritual ringleader of the Seven Sages. Articulate and multitalented, he was a master of the guqin 古琴, a plucked seven-string instrument often associated with Confucian scholarly refinement. He is depicted with a double hair buns, plucking on the guqin and gazing contemplatively into the horizon. 6
Ji Kang was the quintessential Daoist who preferred to compose music and explore philosophy rather than get caught up in the rat race. Ji Kang’s impressive rhetoric and poetry swayed the minds of many, until government officials made clear their intent to lure this reprobate back into their ranks.7
Ji Kang didn’t do himself any favours by refusing invitations to rejoin the government. Soon he faced a charge of “perversion of public morals,” or, in more common parlance, treason. To shelter Ji Kang from certain death, Shan Tao even offered his own official position to Ji Kang. Three thousand students from the Imperial College gathered at the site of his beheading to request Ji Kang as their teacher and a waiver of the severe penalty, a gesture of respect and admiration that the Jin emperor rejected.
Knowing the end was near, Ji Kang implored Shan Tao to watch over his children, a request that Shan Tao honoured. Historians recount their relationship as a prime example of “harmony with disagreements between gentlemen.”
Ji Kang’s final act before his execution was to play his guqin and sing one last song – the famous “Song of Guanglin”《廣陵散》8. His life remains emblematic of an independent-minded scholar who lived life to its fullest, disregarding hollow societal conventions to follow his bliss.
阮籍 Ruǎn Jí (210–263)
Ruan Ji, courtesy name Sizong, was a Chinese musician, poet, and military officer who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period. The guqin melody Jiukuang 酒狂 (‘Drunken ecstasy’, or ‘Wine-mad’) is believed to have been composed by him.
The life and creative work of Ruan Ji took place within a crucial and dramatic period in China history, which culminated to the period known as Period of Disunity9.
Ruan Ji, a son of a famous scholar and a recognised poet in his own right, developed an uncanny ability to avoid aristocratic obligations by cultivating the image of a drunken madman.
When confronted by a ruling family’s demands for his daughter’s hand in marriage, Ruan Ji remained drunk for two months until the family gave up attempting to communicate with him. Some historians recount a more serious side of Ruan Ji, a man who would shut himself away for days on end to read the classic philosophers, in search of insight and truth in what he saw as an imperfect world.
山涛 Shān Tāo (205–283)
Shan Tao, courtesy name Juyuan 巨源, the oldest in the grouping, was the main go-between among the members of the Bamboo Grove.10
The older and more responsible Shan Tao, bounced back and forth between the Bamboo Grove and officialdom to pursue career ambitions. Ji Kang detested Shan Tao’s overly pragmatic behaviour, since Shan Tao was the one who united the Sages as refugees of the system.
Despite the heavy workload, Shan Tao is also a very good drink. It was recorded that he can drink 8 dou (about 400L in modern terms) without getting drunk, and he was disciplined enough to stop at 8. Of course, the amount was most likely an exaggeration.11
Shan Tao’s wife, Lady Han, once queried her husband about his close relationship with Ji Kang and Ruan Ji. Shan Tao explained that they’re the only people with whom he wanted to be friends. Still curious, she secured his permission to spy on the other men that night. Returning to her bedroom at dawn, Lady Han confided to her husband that she had peeped through a hole drilled in the wall to observe Ji Kang and Ruan Ji. She noted their powerful connection (Ji and Ruan were a gay couple), declaring that Shan Tao was their equal in intellect alone.
In c.262, Ji Kang was to be executed. Before the execution, Ji Kang said to his son Ji Shao 嵇紹, “With Juyuan around, you will not be an orphan.”12 20 years later, Shan Tao recommended Ji Shao to become the state librarian in government.
刘伶 Liú Líng (221-300)
Liu Ling’s name is commonly misprinted as “劉靈“. Little information survives about his family background, though he is described in historical sources as short and unattractive, with a dissipated appearance. He once joined the Jianwei army but at the beginning of the reign of Emperor Wu of the Jin Dynasty, he was dismissed for incompetence, as he questioned the Imperial court about the policies.13
Liu Ling was a Taoist who retreated to the countryside in order to pursue a spontaneous and natural existence that would have been impossible under the tight constraints of the Imperial court. The earliest depictions of him often show him drinking.14
The big drinker of the group, he was less intellectual but lightened the mood with his penchant for singing poetry and stumbling around naked. When puzzled guests inquired about this odd habit, Liu Ling responded, “Heaven and Earth are my home, and my house is my pants, so what are you all doing here between my legs?”15
Liu Ling also enjoyed riding in a deer-drawn carriage, jug of grain wine in hand. To his entourage he instructed, “If I drink myself to death, you guys bury me,” and to his wife, “When I die, bury me with wine fermenting over my head.”16
阮咸 Ruǎn Xián (234-305)
Ruan Xian, courtesy name Zhongrong 仲容, was a Chinese scholar who lived in the Six Dynasties period, and the nephew of Ruan Ji.17 Ruan Xian had a Xianbei slave who gave birth to his son, Ruan Fu 阮孚.18
In the picture, Ruan Xian is depicted as playing a four-string instrument that resembles the Chinese lute. He was a skilled player of the Chinese lute, an old version of pipa which has been called ruan 阮19 after his name since the Tang dynasty. His achievement in music reached such high as to be described as “divine understanding” in the Book of Jin.
It was noted that Ruan Xian loved to drink, and he would drink from the vessel rather than a small cup. There was once he got so drunk, he drank with a herd of pigs attracted to the alcohol. 20
向秀 Xiàng Xiù (227-272)
Xiang Xiu, courtesy name Ziqi 子期, was born in Huai County (now southwest of Wuzhi, Henan Province), was a metaphysicist and writer in the Wei and Jin Dynasties.21
Xiang Xiu is good at studying, especially the study of Lao Zhuang, or the philosophies of Laozi and Zhuangzi, the founders of Taoism. Shan Tao once overheard Xiang Xiu talking about Zhuangzi, and was so impressed that the two became good friends. Shan Tao even introduced Xiang Xiu to Ji Kang and Ruan Ji.
His most famous contribution is a commentary on the “Book of Zhuangzi” 莊子22, which was later used and amended by Guo Xiang. After his friend Ji Kang was killed by the ruling Jin dynasty, Xiang carefully interpreted his previous antagonistic words to Emperor Wen of Jin, Sima Zhao in a new light. Thus he avoided the charge of treason, unlike his friend.23
王戎 Wáng Róng (234-305)
Wang Rong, courtesy name Junchong 濬冲, nickname A Rong 阿戎, was a Chinese military general, poet, and politician of the Western Jin dynasty. At the height of his carer, he was made Grand Tutor (or Mentor) 太傅 to the emperor.
Wang Rong had a very good relationship with his wife, and the Chinese idiom “whisper sweet nothings to one another” 卿卿我我 came from the relationship between them. 24
Because of their success in politics and their support of the Sima emperors, Wang Rong and Shan Tao were often looked down upon by scholars of later times. However one can only say that they held different political opinions than the rest of the sages. Their outlook and perspectives are definitely ahead of their time.
榮啟期 Róng Qǐqī
He is placed on the first from left. Róng Qǐqī is a mythological Chinese folk hero. He is depicted as a recluse, who shuns material possessions in favour of an ascetic life. Rong was known in Ancient China for a fable involving an alleged encounter with the philosopher Confucius.
Although largely forgotten in the following centuries, in his time, the story of his encounter with Confucius was a source of artistic and poetic inspiration. The story is retold in the famous text Liezi【列子】, supposedly written by Lie Yukou, a circa 5th-century BC Hundred Schools of Thought philosopher.
Many scholars conclude that Rong Qiqi, while a notable figure in early Chinese literature, is likely fictional or legendary and not historical.25
Analysis of Their Interrelationships
Ji Kang and Ruan Ji are notable as a gay couple although written history is really sparse in terms of evidence.26 They had a relationship that was “stronger than metal and fragrant as orchids27,” and their sexual stamina and prowess was remarked upon by others in their circle. The period of the Seven Sages is fascinating enough with their idea “to be together, not being together” and “act jointly, not acting jointly.” Adding in the uninhibited, equalitarian side of their queer relationships just makes it that much more interesting.28
Shan Tao and Wang Rong both served the late Western Jin and Eastern Jin regimes under Sima clan. Later generations have mixed opinions on their reputation. It is generally believed that Wang Rong and Shan Tao, among the seven sages of the bamboo forest, are ambitious for officialdom and wealth, which is very different from the attitude of Ji Kang, Ruan Ji and others who are indifferent to fame and fortune. However, some people think that the political affiliations of the Seven Sages were different in the first place, and that had no influence in the grouping.29
And finally we have Ruan, Liu Ling and Xiang Xiu. They are all depicted (or recorded in history) as alcoholics with artistic talents. A Western scholar even suspected they were under the influence of psychedelic drugs called Five Mineral Powder 五石散, aka Cold Food Powder 寒食散30. Livia Kohn describes Ruan Ji’s artistic expression, “His friends and fellow poets induced ecstatic experiences through music, wine, and drugs, especially the notorious Cold Food Powder which created psychedelic states and made the body feel very hot, causing people to take off their clothes and jump into pools. When back in their ordinary selves, they wrote poetry of freedom and escape, applying the Zhuangzi concept of free and easy wandering in the sense of getting away from it all and continuing the text’s tradition in their desperate search for a better world within.”31
They are definitely not like the scholars and literati that we grew up studying, more like the Hippies in the 60s.
About Chinese Treasure Series
中華國寶系列 Chinese Treasure series feature specific artefacts and relics from museums all around the world that are historically significant to be considered a National Treasure. The series covers the 5,000 years of Chinese civilisation from Neolithic periods before the Xia dynasty (c. 2070-1600 BC) to modern day.
Footnotes :
- 南朝（420-589年）是中国南北朝时期，由汉族建立的宋、齐、梁、陈四个朝代的总称，均定都建康（今南京），是继东晋之后，中国南方政权，与北方北魏、北齐、北周等政权对峙，推动了江南经济、文化大开发，促进了民族融合，对后来的隋唐盛世奠定了基础。 ↩︎
- Nanjing Museum website,
“竹林七贤”为魏晋时期的七位名士,荣启期则为春秋时期的一位高士。
该砖画原分布在墓室内部南北两壁，各由近三百枚砖块拼嵌而成，规格统一。高士的图案集中出现在墓室中，显然是墓室建造决策者意愿的反映，同时也显示出使用者较高的社会身份。
https://www.njmuseum.com/en/collectionDetails?id=465, accessed 22 Dec 2025 ↩︎ - 王汉, 南京宫山墓竹林七贤砖印壁画与五世纪丝绸之路, 故宮博物院院刊 2021年第12期･ 第236期. “细究上述砖印壁画人物，其部分坐姿、手部动作、身体的裸露、身体结构等方面特征，在本土前代人物图像中绝少见到，但在大同、西安、固原、酒泉、敦煌、拜城、库车等地的历史遗存中发现较多。” https://www.dpm.org.cn/Uploads/File/2021/12/21/u61c143a73dae6.pdf ↩︎
- 《竹林七贤与荣启期》首次于1960年4月于南京西善桥宫山南朝墓中被发现，这也是中国第一次发现南朝大型拼镶壁画墓。1965年丹阳胡桥仙塘湾南朝大墓出土了多幅模印砖画，其中包括半套残破的《竹林七贤与荣启期》。1968年，丹阳胡桥吴家村南朝墓、建山金家村南朝墓中又各出土了一套此题材的拼镶砖画，有少许彩绘遗存，但都出现了人物，人名和画像的砖块拼接错误的情况。2010年，再次在南京雨花台石子岗南朝砖印壁画墓中出土了《竹林七贤与荣启期》画像砖，但拼接散乱不成套。2013年，又在昭明太子墓，即狮子冲大墓发现有《竹林七贤与荣启期》画像砖，其中西壁保存完整，东壁残缺，但因考古发掘被叫停且墓葬回填而未能完全浮现。
目前全国仅在以上六处南朝墓葬中发现过《竹林七贤与荣启期》砖画。六处墓葬均位于江苏省境内，其中丹阳的三座基本确认为南齐帝王墓。南京西善桥及雨花台两处墓葬虽无定论，但根据墓葬规格，依然被认为是皇室等级的高级别墓葬。栖霞区狮子冲墓则被推断为昭明太子萧统墓。这些砖画不仅题材内容相同，而且规模、构图与表现手法也极为相似，其中南京的西善桥及雨花台两处砖画疑似使用同一模范烧制，其余砖画仅在细节描绘与工艺水平上有所差异。https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-sg/竹林七賢與榮啟期, accessed 22 Dec 2025 ↩︎ - Nanjing Museum website, “竹林七贤”为魏晋时期的七位名士,荣启期则为春秋时期的一位高士。画面中嵇康头梳双髻，目送秋鸿，手弹五弦；阮籍身着长袍，一手支皮褥，一手置膝上，口作长啸状；山涛头裹巾，一手挽袖，一手执杯而饮；王戎斜身靠几，手弄玉如意；向秀头戴帻，一肩袒露，闭目沉思；刘伶双目凝视手中酒杯，另一手蘸酒品尝；阮咸垂带飘于脑后，弹一四弦乐器；荣启期则披发长须，腰系绳索，凝思弹奏五弦琴。以上八人皆席地而坐，各具神态，每个人物身旁均标明姓名，彼此之间以银杏、松树、槐树、垂柳等树木相隔，是一组既各自独立又和谐统一的大型画像砖组画。https://www.njmuseum.com/en/collectionDetails?id=465, accessed 22 Dec 2025 ↩︎
- 嵇康 (Jī Kāng)：才华横溢，精通音律，是古琴大师，代表作有。
嵇康头梳双髻，目送秋鸿，手弹五弦 ↩︎ - Meet the Hippies of China: The Seven Bamboo Sages
January 22, 2018. https://www.chinasimplified.com/2018/01/22/meet-hippies-china-seven-bamboo-sages/, accessed 22 Dec 2025 ↩︎ - 〈廣陵散〉是一首古琴曲，又名〈廣陵止息〉[1]，又名〈聶政刺韓王曲〉。傳說為嵇康或聶政所作，或認為是古代流行於廣陵（今江蘇揚州）的民間樂曲。[2], accessed 22 Dec 2025 ↩︎
- Six Dynasties (Chinese: 六朝; pinyin: Liù Cháo; 220–589 or 222–589[1]) is a collective term for six Han-ruled Chinese dynasties that existed from the early 3rd century AD to the late 6th century AD, between the end of the Eastern Han dynasty and the beginning of the Sui dynasty. The Six Dynasties period overlapped with the era of the Sixteen Kingdoms, a chaotic warring period in northern China after the collapse of the Western Jin dynasty, as well as the Northern and Southern dynasties period. ↩︎
- 大器晚成，善于书信，是群体中的“老大哥”。
山涛头裹巾，一手挽袖，一手执杯而饮 ↩︎ - 《晉書卷四十三，列傳第十三》 濤飲酒至八斗方醉，帝欲試之，乃以酒八斗飲濤，而密益其酒，濤極本量而止。 ↩︎
- 《晉書卷四十三，列傳第十三》 康后坐事，临诛，谓子绍曰：“巨源在，汝不孤矣。 ↩︎
- 刘伶（约221年—300年），字伯伦，沛国（今安徽宿县）人，“竹林七贤”之一。曾为建威参军。晋武帝泰始初，对朝廷策问，强调无为而治，以无能罢免。平生嗜酒，曾作《酒德颂》，宣扬老庄思想和纵酒放诞之情趣，对传统“礼法”表示蔑视。
传记与笔记
《晋书·列传十九·刘伶》载其：身长六尺，容貌甚陋。放情肆志，常以细宇宙齐万物为心。澹默少言，不妄交游，与阮籍、嵇康相遇，欣然神解，携手入林。初不以家产有无介意。常乘鹿车，携一壶酒，使人荷锸而随之，谓曰：“死便埋我。”其遗形骸如此。尝渴甚，求酒于其妻。妻捐酒毁器，涕泣谏曰：“君酒太过，非摄生之道，必宜断之。”伶曰：“善！吾不能自禁，惟当祝鬼神自誓耳。便可具酒肉。”妻从之。伶跪祝曰：
“ 天生刘伶，以酒为名。一饮一斛，五斗解酲。妇人之言，慎不可听。 ”
仍引酒御肉，隗然复醉。尝醉与俗人相忤，其人攘袂奋拳而往。伶徐曰：“鸡肋不足以安尊拳。”其人笑而止。
《世说新语》记载，刘伶恒纵酒放达。或脱衣裸形在屋中，人见讥之。伶曰∶
“ 我以天地为栋宇，屋室为裈衣。诸君何为入我裈中？ ” https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-sg/刘伶, accessed 22 Dec 2025 ↩︎ - 刘伶 (Liú Líng)：以嗜酒著称，行为放浪，常赤裸上身，以酒解世事之苦。
刘伶双目凝视手中酒杯，另一手蘸酒品尝 ↩︎ - 《世说新语》记载，刘伶恒纵酒放达。或脱衣裸形在屋中，人见讥之。伶曰∶
“我以天地为栋宇，屋室为褌衣。诸君何为入我褌中？” ↩︎ - 《晋书·列传十九·刘伶》载其：身长六尺，容貌甚陋。放情肆志，常以细宇宙齐万物为心。澹默少言，不妄交游，与阮籍、嵇康相遇，欣然神解，携手入林。初不以家产有无介意。常乘鹿车，携一壶酒，使人荷锸而随之，谓曰：“死便埋我。” 其遗形骸如此。尝渴甚，求酒于其妻。妻捐酒毁器，涕泣谏曰：“君酒太过，非摄生之道，必宜断之。”伶曰：“善！吾不能自禁，惟当祝鬼神自誓耳。便可具酒肉。”妻从之。 ↩︎
- 阮咸 (Ruǎn Xián)：阮籍的侄子，擅长音乐，与猪共饮的轶事流传甚广。
阮咸垂带飘于脑后，弹一四弦乐器 ↩︎ - 阮咸出生于三国曹魏前期，在竹林七贤中仅比王戎年长。阮咸为人“任达不拘”，年少时与其姑母家的鲜卑婢女私通。阮咸之母去世后，姑母将远行，起初答应留下此婢，临行时又将她带走。守孝中的阮咸得知，穿着孝服，借客人的驴子急追姑母。追得后，阮咸骑一驴载着婢女共返，说：“肚子里的孩子可不能丢掉！”。因此为世人所讥。后来此婢生得一子，阮咸写信给姑母说：“胡婢遂生胡儿。”姑母回信答道：“《鲁灵光殿赋》曰：‘胡人遥集于上楹。’可字曰‘遥集’也。”此儿即阮孚。 ↩︎
- Red Sandalwood Genkan (Ruan Xian) with Mother-of-Pearl Inlay (Raden) 螺鈿紫檀阮咸（北倉）
Tang Dynasty | Shōsō-in Treasures collection, c/o Nara National Museum. 正倉院
Because a sample of this instrument was found in Ruan Xian’s tomb during the Tang dynasty, it was henceforth named Ruan Xian, or simplified to Ruan. ↩︎ - 《世说新语》任诞 ↩︎
- 向秀（227年—272年），字子期，河内怀县（今河南武陟西南）人，魏晋玄学家、作家，竹林七贤之一。
向秀好读书，尤喜老庄之学，山涛曾经偶然间听到向秀谈论《庄子》，惊为天人，两人遂结为忘年交，山涛更将向秀介绍给嵇康与阮籍。https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-sg/向秀, accessed 22 Dec 2025 ↩︎ - Zhuangzi 莊子 “Master Zhuang” is one of the two basic writings of Daoist philosophy from the Warring States period 戰國 (5th cent.-221 BCE). The other is the book Laozi 老子 or Daodejing 道德經. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Daoists/zhuangzi.html, accessed 22 Dec 2025 ↩︎
- 《世说新语》言语第十八则 ：”嵇中散嵇康既被诛，向子期向秀举郡计郡中计吏入洛，文王司马昭引进，问曰：“闻君有箕山之志隐居的志向，何以在此？” 对曰：“巢父、许由狷介之士洁身自好、孤傲不群，不足多慕。”王大咨嗟赞赏。”
注：景元四年（264年），嵇康、吕安被司马昭害死后，向秀选择妥协应本郡的郡上计到洛阳任散骑侍郎、黄门散骑常侍、散骑常侍。受文王司马昭召见，嘲讽：“闻君有箕山之志隐居的志向，何以在此？”，子期回答：“巢父、许由狷介之士洁身自好、孤傲不群，不足多慕。”文王大为赞赏。
向秀在朝只做官不做事，消极无为。泰始八年（272年），向秀去世。https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-sg/向秀, accessed 22 Dec 2025 ↩︎ - 《世说新语》惑溺. 王戎之妻以“卿”称呼王戎（按礼，妇人应以“君”称其夫，“卿”是夫对妻的称呼）。王戎说：“妇人卿婿，于礼为不敬，后勿复尔。”其妻曰：“亲卿爱卿，是以卿卿。我不卿卿，谁当卿卿？”[16]。王戎也无可奈何。成语“卿卿我我”即出于此典。 ↩︎
- 可能是虚构人物的榮启期的哲学在文人中受到赞赏，而且在艺术家眼中看来是一种更自然、流畅、自由的生活方式。诗人阮侃称赞榮启期的宿命论是道教一种实现安宁与和谐生活的方法，为道不可或缺的一部分。https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/榮啟期, accessed 22 Dec 2025 ↩︎
- Hinsch, Bret (August 10, 1990). Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China. University of California Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-0-520-91265-6. ↩︎
- 二人同心，其利断金。同心之言，其臭如兰。《周易·系辞上》注：“臭”这里指气味，而不是味道难闻。 ↩︎
- https://frockflicks.com/queer-historical-people-need-movies-made/, accessed 22 Dec 2025 ↩︎
- 侯外庐、游国恩等，《中国思想通史》第三卷第五章：嵇康的心声二元论及其社会思想、逻辑思想
后世对王戎的评价毁誉参半。一般认为竹林七贤中的王戎、山涛二人贪图高官厚禄，依附于司马氏，与嵇康、阮籍等人不事权贵或淡泊名利的态度大相径庭。但也有人认为竹林七贤的政治倾向原本就各不相同，嵇、阮等人也并非有意维护曹魏统治，而与司马氏为敌. 1995，《中国思想通史》，第三卷，北京：人民文学出版社。ISBN 7-01-000882-5 ↩︎ - Cold-Food Powder (Chinese: 寒食散; pinyin: hánshísǎn; Wade–Giles: han-shih-san) or Five Minerals Powder (Chinese: 五石散; pinyin: wǔshísǎn; Wade–Giles: wu-shih-san) was a poisonous psychoactive drug popular during the Six Dynasties (220–589) and Tang dynasty (618–907) periods of China. ↩︎
- Kohn, Livia (2008). Introducing Daoism. Routledge. ISBN 9780415439978. p.44 ↩︎
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