National Treasures – Lacquered Wooden Bowl (Neolithic – Hemudu)

The discovery of this artefact pushes back the history of lacquerware in China by thousands of years. Also the discovery of such items challenged previous views that ancient Chinese civilisation was solely centred around the Yellow River, highlighting a distinct southern culture. ¹

National Treasure 国宝

Lacquered Wooden Bowl 漆木碗

Lacquerware | Hemudu culture in the Neolithic Age (about 7,000-5,300 BP) | Dimension: Mouth: 10.6×9.2cm; Bottom: 7.6×7.2cm; Height: 5.7cm； Thickness: 2cm | Excavated from the Hemudu site, 1973-1977 | Zhejiang Provincial Museum collection. 漆木｜新石器时代河姆滾文化（距今7000～5300年）｜1973-1977年河姆渡遗址出土｜浙江省博物馆藏

This lacquered wooden bowl from the Neolithic Hemudu culture is carved out of a whole piece of log, with an inward rim, a bulging belly, a short ring foot, and a melon prismatic shape painted with vermilion lacquer. Unfortunately, it was excavated with serious peelings but still bright.²

What’s Lacquerware 漆器?

Lacquer—an English word derived from the Portuguese word lacré (sealing wax)—refers to the toxic sap sourced from trees belonging to the Toxicodendron genus widely found in Korea, Japan, southern China, and Southeast Asia. When exposed to oxygen and humidity, lacquer hardens, or polymerises, becoming a natural plastic and ideal protective covering.³

The phrases “漆黑” (qīhēi, lit. “Black like lacquer”) and “如胶似漆” (rújiāosìqī, lit. “Sticky like glue and lacquer”) have been embedded in the Chinese language. 漆 (qī), originally used to represent natural lacquer, is the black, shiny coat of resin used to paint over wood and other fibrous materials to give them the unique coating. And later one, the word “漆” is used to represent synthetic painting materials as well.

Lacquer is the sap of the lacquer tree Toxicodendron vernicifluum (formerly Rhus verniciflua), which grows in East and Southeast Asia. Naturally sticky, it can be brushed onto different materials, and hardens into a durable coating that is waterproof and resistant to acids, alkalis, and heat. Because of its versatility and beauty, lacquer has been central to daily life in parts of Asia for close to 9,000 years.⁴

Many thin layers of lacquer are applied to the surface of objects — sometimes up to 20 or 30 layers. Each layer is left to dry, then polished to a smooth finish. This process of lacquering is very time consuming, and lacquerware of the past were expensive luxury objects. Unlike in the past, most lacquer today is made using chemicals. 

Products coated with lacquer are recognisable by an extremely durable and glossy finish. China is abundant in wild lacquer resources and traditional Chinese lacquer art applies natural lacquer liquid from lacquer trees.⁵ Starting from red lacquer wood bowls and painted potteries in the Neolithic age, Chinese lacquer art enjoyed rapid development in the Warring States period (770-256 BC) and the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD), thanks to the upgraded productivity of the time.

During the Warring States period, lacquerwares were used in every sphere of society, including daily utensils, music instruments, tomb wares and even weapons. According to historical documents, lacquer trees were widely planted during the Warring States period (770-256BC). Famous philosopher Zhuang Zi 庄子 (c.369-c.286 BC), one of the founders of Taoism, worked as an official overseeing lacquer plantations for some time. ⁶

People of Chu, living in modern day Hubei region, liked red colour and made a large number of red lacquerwares. Chu-style lacquerwares 楚式漆艺 features two basic colours, red and black, creating unique visual effect. Red and black lacquerwares have since been characteristic of Chinese lacquer art.⁷

Chinese lacquer art came into its golden age during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD). At that time, the court, nobilities and local merchants regarded lacquer wares as symbols of fortune and status. In order to satisfy personal material needs, they spent numerous human and financial resources to make exquisite lacquer wares. Decoration techniques witnessed new developments in the Han Dynasty; inlaid gold and silver pattern appeared on the lacquerwares at that time.⁹

During the ensuing Jin (265-420) and Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-589), thanks to the introduction and widespread of Buddhism in China, lacquer art began to be applied to Buddha sculptures. One of the important excavations of this time is a lacquer wood screen unearthed in a tomb in Datong, Shanxi Province.

The screen, painted with red lacquer with black inscriptions, has lacquer paintings on it based on stories from “Legends of Heroic Women” 《列女传》from Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD). This lacquer screen is a masterpiece both for its painting and calligraphy.¹⁰

One of the prominent achievements of the Tang Dynasty (618-907) is its progress in lacquerware techniques. For instance, gold and silver pieces are cut into different patterns to be embedded in lacquer roughcasts and polished. Thus exquisite lacquerwares came into being.

Lacquer art was further developed in the following Song Dynasty (960- 1279AD). The flourishing economy and stable society gave rise to varieties of lacquer wares, among which the most distinctive style is single-colour lacquerware. Though deprived of decorative patterns and designs, single-colour lacquerware was made with extremely meticulous craftsmanship.

In the Ming Dynasty, a lacquerware craftsman named Huang Cheng 黃成, based on experiences of his own and generations of craftsmen, wrote the first book on lacquer art.¹² The book “Records of Lacquering” 《髹飾錄》was later annotated by another famous Ming era lacquer craftsman Yang Ming 揚明, which make it China’s only complete published work on lacquer art found to date. Ironically, the only copy to be found is now an “Important Cultural Treasure” 「國家重要文化財」 in Tokyo National Museum.¹³

The production of lacquer carving fully inherited the carving and lacquer skills of the Ming and further developed styles of its own during the Qing dynasty (1644-1912), especially during Qianlong reign (1736-1795). ¹⁴ Lacquering was an incredibly laborious process and one only undertaken by highly skilled craftsmen. It could take anywhere between three and six months to coat a piece of furniture of this size.

Spread of Lacquerware

Lacquerware’s spread began in East Asia, specifically China and Japan, thousands of years ago, before expanding globally via trade routes to Korea, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Europe.

Chinese methods and artistic concepts spread to neighbouring countries through trade, migration, and cultural exchange, particularly during the Han, Tang, and Song dynasties.

Japanese lacquer trees or urushi 漆 – Toxicodendron vernicifluum (formerly Rhus verniciflua) are not wild in Japan, and ones found in the mountains are survivors of recent plantings. The same is true in Korea, where lacquer trees were cultivated specially from grafts of saplings from wild lacquer trees found in some areas of China.

Japanese Lacquerware

Independent development of lacquering technology may have occurred in Japan¹⁵, as the world’s oldest lacquered objects, burial ornaments, were found in Jōmon-period 縄文時代 (14,000 BC – 3rd~5th century BC) tombs dating back approximately 7,200 years.¹⁶

It was believed that lacquerware was introduced to Japan only from the Tang dynasty (618-907) during the Nara period 奈良時代 (710-964), when returning Buddhist monks brought back relics and gifts.¹⁸

This saddle was made over 800 years ago, most likely for an elite samurai to use in ceremonies. Artisans constructed the saddle from wood, lacquered the surface, and decorated it with pieces of shell. The shell is arranged to depict autumn plants known as bush clovers, with a spiderweb adding a naturalistic touch.

However Japanese techniques, such as maki-e (gold/silver powder decoration), developed unique characteristics and became highly refined by the time of the Edo period (江戸時代, 1603-1868). 

In Japan, artisans coated everyday items with lacquer, including furniture, boxes, dining sets, and cosmetic and writing tools. The base material could be wood, pottery, cloth, leather, or paper. To decorate these items, artisans painted designs with a mixture of lacquer and pigment, or used lacquer like a glue to inlay metal and mother-of-pearl.

The pinnacle of lacquer decoration in Japan is maki-e 蒔絵 (sprinkled picture). This technique consists of painting a design with lacquer, and then sprinkling metal powders onto the sticky lacquer before it hardens. Artisans first used maki-e in the 8th century and developed this technique to an extraordinary degree over the centuries.

Korean Lacquerware

Several lacquerware objects, including dishes and weapons, were buried in the Nangnang tombs from the Goguryeo period 高句麗 (37 BC – 668 AD) , some of which were inscribed with the name of their producer and the date of production. Excavations indicate that bracelets and rings were probably worn by both men and women.²²

Lacquerware techniques were introduced to the Korean Peninsula from China as early as the Qin and Han dynasties. Korean artisans later developed their own distinct style, particularly focusing on intricate mother-of-pearl inlay (raden/螺鈿). 

Lacquerware with mother-of-pearl inlay has a long and rich tradition in the history of Korean art. The term “mother-of-pearl” has been used since at least the sixteenth century to describe the lustrous material in the interior of some mollusks in many parts of the world.

Conclusion

Although China is the first country in the world that became aware of lacquer and used it for decoration and waterproofing²³, lacquerware becomes a major technique to mass produce practical utensil across Asia. Lacquerware has fallen out of favour as cheaper alternatives like plastics have taken its functionality, the craft has moved in tangent to become an artistic art form and craft. That’s a long way from the first lacquerware discovered in Hemudu.

Hemudu culture 河姆渡文化

The Hemudu culture 河姆渡文化 flourished on China’s eastern seaboard around today’s Ningbo in the south of Hangzhou from around 5500-3300 BC. It was named after Hemudu Town in Yuyao, Zhejiang Province after an excavation site uncovered this artefact (as well as others like another National Treasure – Ivory Butterfly-Shaped Container With Double-Bird Pattern) in 1973. The waterlogged conditions of the sites helped preserve organic materials like this wooden artefact, which would otherwise have decayed. 

Photos taken at Zhejiang Provincial Museum in Hangzhou on Mar 2024, Shanxi Provincial Museum in Taiyuan on Oct 2025, National Museum of China May 2023, National Museum of Korea Jun 2025 and Tokyo National Museum on Jan 2025 and Nov 2023, unless otherwise stated.

Footnotes :

1. “Chinese roots“, by Global Times Published: Aug 31, 2022 06:59 PM, https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202208/1274300.shtml, accessed 23 Nov 2025 ↩︎
2. 这只漆木碗用整段圆木镂剜而成，敛口，鼓腹，矮圈足，瓜棱形外表髹朱红色漆，出土时尚略有光泽，可借剥落较为严重。Museum information card, Mar 2024 ↩︎
3. EXHIBITION “Shell and Resin: Korean Mother-of-Pearl and Lacquer“, December 13, 2021–July 5, 2022, https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/shell-and-resin, accessed 25 Nov 2025 ↩︎
4. Tokyo National Museum, Museum information card, Nov 2023 ↩︎
5. Lacquer (Urushi) tree – Toxicodendron vernicifluum (formerly Rhus verniciflua), also known by the common name lacquer tree is an Asian tree species of genus Toxicodendron. Recent research on poison ivy suggests that it was introduced to Japan from mainland China during or before the Jomon period (14,000 B.C. – 3rd~5th century B.C.).[1]
   Lacquer trees are ecologically quite different from other plants of the genus Toxicodendron , and it turns out that lacquer trees are not wild in Japan.[2] and ones found in the mountains are survivors of recent plantings. The same is true in Korea, where wild lacquer trees grow only in some areas of China. (Southeast Asian lacquer trees are different plants because of their different genes and composition.)
   There are two genetically distinct groups of wild lacquer trees, one in central China and the other in the coastal areas of eastern China. The Japanese cultivated lacquer tree is derived from the eastern Chinese group, and the cultivated lacquer tree of Japan and Korea and the wild lacquer tree of Liaoning and Shandong Provinces have exactly the same nucleotide sequence. https://suganokaori.com/article.e_history.html, accessed 23 Nov 2025 ↩︎
6. 司马迁《史记·老莊申韓列传》载：“莊子者，蒙人也，名周。周尝为蒙漆园吏，与梁惠王、齐宣王同时。其学无所不闚，然其要本归於老子之言。故其著书十馀万言，大抵率寓言也。……其言洸洋自恣以適己，故自王公大人不能器之。” ↩︎
7. “The re-awakening of lacquer in China today” by Liu Huan, 3 JUNE 2019
   Jingzhou, located in the south-central part of Hubei Province and in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, is a riverside city with a combination of ancient culture and modern civilisation. The history of Jingzhou as a city is more than 3,000 years old. It was the capital city of Chu state (楚国) in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period（春秋战国；Eastern Zhou）, which has nurtured the influential Chu culture (楚文化) in the history of Chinese civilization.
   During the Warring States Period (战国), the territory of the Chu State covered not only the present Hunan Province, Hubei Province, southern Henan Province, southern Shandong Province, but also the majority region of Jiangsu Province, Shanghai, and Jiangxi Province. At its peak, it also included the Hanzhong area (汉中地区) in the southwestern Shaanxi Province. With the expansion of the territory of Chu State, the Chu culture has a wide range of influences. 
   Lacquerware has a pivotal position in Chu culture, not only in its extensive usage but also in its high artistic value, transmitting the Chu people’s cultural identity across its long history. 
   https://garlandmag.com/article/lacquer-in-china-today/, accessed 24 Nov 2025 ↩︎
8. 朱地彩绘漆棺 COFFIN WITH PAINTED DESIGN ON VERMILION LACQUER COATING
   辛追墓出土。第三重棺。通体内外髹朱漆，外表用青绿、粉褐、藕褐、赤褐、黄白等色漆绘龙、虎、朱雀、鹿、仙人和昆仑仙山等祥瑞图案，来表现死者灵魂已摆脱邪魔侵扰，到达人间仙境。棺画色彩艳丽、用笔流畅、技法娴熟，代表了汉代漆画艺术的高度成就。Museum information card, Oct 2025 ↩︎
9. “Chinese Lacquer Art“, 2018-01-03 Source: China Culture https://www.chinesethought.cn/EN/detail.aspx?nid=114&pid=130&id=3318, accessed 23 Nov 2025 ↩︎
10. 司马金龙漆画屏风板，是与石床榻一起组合使用的围屏构件，为木胎漆绘，木胎外以麻布为底，再以漆填平。屏风板正、背面均绘漆画，画面自上而下分为四层，表现列女古贤人物故事，人物旁多有榜题和题记。故事和文字内容取材于《列女传》《孝子经》《汉书•外戚传》等史籍文献。
    画面以朱漆为地，以黑漆勾线，采用渲染和铁线勾描的手法，色彩非常浓艳。在艺术风格上与传顾恺之所作的《洛神赋图》《女史箴图》较为接近，呈现出鲜明的东晋、南朝文化特征，反映出当时南方绘画对平城的影响，对于探讨南北朝时期南北文化交融具有重要价值。Museum information card, Oct 2025 ↩︎
11. 盘通体髹黑漆，盘心嵌螺细人物故事图，描绘的是昆曲剧作《义侠记 戏叔》一一折故事。盘沿嵌饰一周花卉纹，花卉加施金片，盘底部嵌螺细 心安制 款。漆盘力薄螺钿镇嵌工艺，然甜裁切“点、抹、钩、条”依形而饰 人物形象生动、姿态传神，衣纹流畅，通过螺钿的细腻裁切与镶嵌，巧妙捕捉了剧中人物的神情与动态，使画面栩栩如生。Museum information card, Nov 2025 (Nanjing Museum) ↩︎
12. In beautiful language the book first makes an explanation of the tools, materials, and equipment used for the manufacture and preservation of various kinds of lacquer ware. Because the author was writing from personal experience, a novice to the field can make quite respectable lacquer ware simply by following his instructions.
    Moreover, though lacquer was Huang’s trade, in the text he reveals a broad knowledge of the classics, and interspersed throughout are appropriate elegant classical references. For instance, in the section “The Movement of Heaven,” he relates a passage in the Book of Changes (“Heaven is constantly moving, and likewise the righteous man works always to strengthen himself”) to the process of making a ceramic base for lacquer ware, in which one turns it like a top that never stops spinning. In the section “Wind Blows,” he says that when polishing a piece of lacquer ware one should rub “calmly and steadily, like a breeze caressing a face.” The book also describes common mistakes.
    The most praiseworthy portion of the book is the last section entitled “Imitation.” Huang Cheng believed that there are two forms of imitation. The first is “copying from the past,” which involves preserving the beautiful aspects of a tradition. This means doing one’s best to learn the spirit and techniques of the ancients, rather than making slavish reproductions. He holds that it’s not hard to make exact copies of ancient works, even to the point where the signatures and seals are the same, but that in such cases the craftsman reproducing the work should sign too, so there is no doubt that it is a reproduction and not a forgery. The second form of imitation is “copying from the present,” which means looking at the techniques and feelings expressed in the lacquer ware of different locales and incorporating some of their beautiful aspects into one’s own work. Suoo Yu-ming values the Xiushi Lu not only for passing down knowledge about lacquering techniques, but even more for what it shows about the upright character of ancient craftsmen. “In Search of Lacquer’s Lustrous Past“, Tsai Wen-ting/tr. by Jonathan Barnard, June 1998, https://www.taiwan-panorama.com/en/Articles/Details?Guid=c2662bd9-b7a0-4452-995c-b3afd3a66482&CatId=8&postname=In%20Search%20of%20Lacquer%27s%20Lustrous%20Past&srsltid=AfmBOoofObTjhN9x8t17b60h6zy20H1TmDhY5Q6Az642OsPrdeWwpAVW ↩︎
13. 古來文人輕工藝
    工藝的研究在中國少，其中漆器的研究更是鳳毛麟角；即使在我國最大的百科全書──古今圖書集成裡，有關漆工的資料也少的不成篇章。在台灣，有關漆器的研究專書幾乎都是索予明的著作，索予明表示，這是因為在古器物的研究上，有文字的銅器或是甲骨一向備受重視；二來也因為古漆器的發掘大多在最近半個世紀，因此不像玉器或陶瓷總是專書充棟。
    明朝是中國漆器發展的一個巔峰，一位生長在安徽新安縣的漆工黃成，將一生心得寫成專書，以工匠而能從事書寫，在中國是怳嬤u見的。然而在當時社會對技藝的輕忽下，這本書可能沒有付印的機會，之後明朝著名的漆工揚明將這本書加以注釋，更充實了書的內容，由揚明的序文看來，這本髹飾錄在當時還是不曾付印，可以想見這樣與功名利祿無關的工匠之書流傳怳嬰陪迭A並且很快就在中國失傳了。
    海外孤本、日本國寶
    不過這本在中國不被重視的工藝寶典，被前來中國學習漆藝的日本人抄了一份帶回日本，經過輾轉的收藏，這世界唯一的孤本，被收藏的國立東京博物館列為「國家重要文化財」。
    民國初年，對工藝製造當相有興趣的財政總長朱啟鈐，在研究中國美術史的日本學者大村西崖書中得知髹飾錄的存在，於是運用政治人脈抄了一本，並以木刻本印了兩百部，一半收藏在國內，不料原版在對日抗戰中遭到轟炸，髹飾錄便又失散了。
    明國六十一年，當時任職於故宮博物院的索予明透過日本學者及館藏交流的管道，“重獲影本. 尋漆記──索予明”, 文‧蔡文婷, 1998 6月, https://www.taiwan-panorama.com/zh/Articles/Details?Guid=56db0738-26c7-49a9-aeff-e479bd583036&langId=1&CatId=8&postname=尋漆記──索予明 ↩︎
14. “The re-awakening of lacquer in China today“, Liu Huan, 3 JUNE 2019, https://garlandmag.com/article/lacquer-in-china-today/, accessed 24 Nov 2025 ↩︎
15. これまでウルシは大陸起源で、大陸から日本に持ち込まれたとの見方が強かった。今回の発見で、その交流が縄文時代草創期から始まっていた可能性が出てきた。一方で交流がなかった場合、これまでとは逆に、ウルシが国内に自生していた可能性も出てくる。”１万２千年前のウルシ木片／世界最古、福井で出土“, Shikoku News, 2011/11/06 17:52, https://www.shikoku-np.co.jp/national/science_environmental/20111106000254, accessed 24 Nov 2025 ↩︎
16. “Associate Professor Kudo Yuichiro of the Department of Japanese Studies, Faculty of Intercultural Studies, Gakushuin Women’s College, who is surveying and researching the use of plants during the Jomon period, explains, “It has been confirmed that fragments of a lacquered comb discovered at the Kamikuzuro Nakaya archeological site in Toyama Prefecture and the Mibiki archeological site in Ishikawa Prefecture are about 7,500 to 7,200 years old. At the present time, these are among the oldest remains of lacquerware products in Japan and, it is thought, the world. In any case, a culture of lacquer use had undoubtedly developed on the Japanese islands between 7,500 and 6,000 years ago.” Red Lacquerware from the Jomon Period, By KATO KYOKO, May 2022, https://www.gov-online.go.jp/eng/publicity/book/hlj/html/202205/202205_04_en.html, accessed 23 Nov 2025 ↩︎
17. Three artefacts from Nara period 奈良時代 (710-964) (from left). –
    1. 木鉢 Bowl | 木製漆塗 Lacquered wood, Nara period, 8th century
    2. 塵尾 Shubi (Abott’s Baton) | 木製漆塗 Lacquered wood, Nara period, 8th century
    3. 如意 Nyoi (Crook) | 角製 Horn, Nara period, 8th century
    All items are designated Important Cultural Property 重要文化財 ↩︎
18. With the advance of Buddhism from mainland Asia during the Nara period (8^th-9^th century), Japan’s lacquer craftsmen found stable patronage under the temple clergy. Some of Japan’s oldest lacquer production centres -Wajima and Kisshu- developed from crafts communities which centred around important temples (Gonroku, p. 188. Kisshu lacquer is said to have developed under the patronage of Negoro temple (根来寺), whereas Wajima produced lacquer for Sojiji temple (總持寺) ) From simple red- and black lacquered bowls and trays, clergy patronage allowed the adaptation of new decorative techniques coming from China and Korea. Amongst many of Japan’s National Treasures preserved in Nara’s Shoshoin temple, we find a great number of imported lacquer artworks from China and Korea featuring gilding, pearl inlay, gold sheet inlay; but also the earliest example of sprinkled gold powder, called maki-e (The item in question is a scabbard known as kingindenzari no karatachi, preserved at Shosoin treasury northern storage, no. 33 (北倉 38)). These masterpieces of lacquer from the Tang dynasty had arguably encouraged the Japanese to treat lacquer as an art form and continue their refinement of both aesthetics and craftmanship. “Following the Lacquer God” by Dave van Gompel, 6 MAY 2020. https://garlandmag.com/lacquer-god/, accessed 24 Nov 2025 ↩︎
19. Saddle with Bush Clovers 萩螺鈿鞍
    Lacquered wood with mother-of-pearl inlay| Heian period, 12th century | Tokyo National Museum collection 木製漆塗｜平安時代・12世紀｜東京国立博物館
    designated Important Cultural Property 重要文化財 ↩︎
20. Artefacts from the Goguryeo tombs of Goguryeo kingdom –
    타원형 칠그릇 楕圓形漆奩 Lacquered small case (oval)
    평양 남정리 116호 무덤 Nanjung-ri Tomb No. 116, Pyongyang
    장방형 칠그릇 長方形漆奩 Lacquered small case (rectangular)
    평양 석암리 194호 무덤 Seogam-ri Tomb No. 194, Pyongyang
    칠그릇 漆壺 Lacquered Jar
    평양 남정리 116호 무덤 Nanjung-ri Tomb No. 116, Pyeongyang
    Museum information card, May 2025 ↩︎
21. Goguryeo tombs, officially designated as the Complex of Koguryo Tombs(Korean: 고구려 고분군), are tombs in North Korea. In July 2004, they became the first UNESCO World Heritage site in the country. The site consists of 30 individual tombs from the later Goguryeo kingdom, one of Three Kingdoms of Korea, located in the cities of P’yŏngyang and Namp’o, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goguryeo_tombs, accessed 25 Nov 2025 ↩︎
22. Nangnang tombs are ancient burial sites, primarily located in what is now Pyongyang, North Korea, associated with the Lelang Commandery (Nangnang), a Han Dynasty colony from around 108 BCE to 313 CE. These tombs are significant archaeological finds because they contain numerous artifacts, including daily pottery, lacquerware, and metalwork like gold belts and bronze mirrors, providing insight into the culture, trade, and social hierarchy of the time. The largest and most significant of these, Seokam-ri Tomb 9, was discovered in 1916 and yielded exceptionally rich grave goods.  ↩︎
23. The discovery of this red lacquer bowl indicates that at least six or seven thousand years ago, Chinese ancestors had been using lacquer to decorate the surface of apparatus. And this bowl is the only evidence to prove this point as there’s no other evidence of lacquerware in the site, making this artefact really unique. ↩︎