I had to guess the origin and use of these artefacts and relics found in this brand new museum in Ulaanbaatar because all the museum labels were in Mongolian. But the Chinggis Khaan Museum was really the highlight of my visit.
Table of Contents
For the purpose of this post, the romanised names of the historical figures like Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan will be used; the titles like Qaghan / Khagan / Khaan are used interchangeably with romanised Khan unless the emphasis on the title “Great Khan”. The focus is mainly on Mongolia and China histories, so we will not be looking at the influence of Mongolians in Europe and Middle East. Mongol is used to describe the Mongol Empire people, Mongolians for the modern Mongolia people.
How it all began….
The Chinggis Khaan National Museum (Mongolian: Чингис хаан Үндэсний музей) is a museum dedicated to Genghis Khan and the glorious period known as the Pax Mongolica.
The groundbreaking of the museum was held in 2020 at the site where the old building of the Mongolian Natural History Museum used to stand. The Chinggis museum was opened in October 2022.
The museum is housed in a 9-story building. The main gate of the museum resembles a paiza. It is easily recognised thanks to the dome structure on the roof (a modern Mongolian ger, but it was not opened when I visited) as well as the seals of the five Khaans of the Great Mongolian Empire (Chinggis, Ugedei, Guyug, Mönkh, and Arigböh) admirably marking the museum’s entrance.
Covering more than 2,000 years of Mongolian history through a display of more than 11,000 artefacts – 92% of which are original – the museum aims to preserve and promote not only the country’s most famous emperor, but also his successors, and the development of the country and its people over the years.
You can find artefacts that include clothing, saddles, deer stones, ger recreations, and more. Paintings and life-size khans make up some of the more interesting corners of the museum.
The permanent exhibitions are divided into these sections, each occupying a floor:
- Mongolia’s Ancient States (Xiongnu, Xianbei, Rouran)
- Ancient Nomadic States (Turkic, Uyghur, Khitan)
- Great Mongol State
- Mongol Empire
- Chinggis Khaan as well as other Kings and Nobles from the XIV to XX century
- and a Mongolian Pride Hall
From the Bronze Age to the 12th Century
Hall of the Ancient Empires begins with exhibits of the deer stones dating back to the bronze age. Along with other impressive exhibits of the Xiongnu empire (3rd century BC to 1st century AD). I suspect that these deer stones and other prehistoric relics were moved here from the National Museum of Mongolia as the prehistoric exhibition over there is almost bare.
The Xiongnu Empire under Modu Chanyu took advantage of the wars inside China and extended from the Great Wall in the south, to Lake Baikal in the north; and stretched east-west from il Tarvagatai to Korea. Many remnants of their settlements have been found in Mongolia.
Recreation of the Xiongnu Tomb
Many tombs of the Xiongnu were found, however the tomb interiors are not available to the public, unlike the Chinese tombs which have become attractions. In many of these tombs, you will find the sun-moon (right) that have been adopted in the Mongolian Soyombo. Here is a recreation of the Xiongnu tomb of the King.
The depiction of the tomb is highly accurate, and one can see how the body was placed in the coffin inside a large chamber of the tomb and what kinds of objects were buried with the person—including swords, ornaments, and finely detailed jewellery. The style of clothing found in the tombs indicate the advanced techniques in appliqué-style embroidery.
Xiongnu Burial Clothes
Xiongnu Dagger and Scabbard with Belt Ornaments
Inscriptions on Cattle Anklebones
Bones | Xiongnu empire (3rd century BC – 1st century AD) | Chinggis Khaan Museum
Unlike their Chinese neighbours, the Xiongnu never developed a writing system, and consequently historical records about the Xiongnu have been almost entirely written and passed down by their rivals and enemies. Such accounts, largely recorded by Han Dynasty chroniclers, provide little useful information on the origins of the Xiongnu, their political rise, or their social organisation.
Tiles, Eaves and Roof Tiles from Luut City
Clay | Xiongnu Empire (3rd century BC – 1st century AD) | Ulziit süm, Arkhangai aimag (2020)
Xiongnu Empire’s Luut City aka “the dragon city” roof tiles are displayed as well. Many people think that the Xiongnu sword wielding warriors were strangers to an urban life. But the Luut City had a fortifying wall, an architectural marvel dating back 2,000 years. Defying beliefs that the Xiongnu were barbarians, the Xiongnu had a functioning society, a tax system, and were the ancestors to the great Atilla the Hun.
The Xiongnu built a multiethnic empire on the Mongolian steppe that was connected by trade to Rome, Egypt, and Imperial China. In 2020, the remains of Luut (Luncheng), the capital of Khunnu Empire (Xiongnu Empire), were discovered on the territory of Ulziit soum of Arkhangai aimag.
Bronze Mirror
Bronze | 3rd century | Chinggis Khaan Museum
A solid bronze mirror with a multi-patterned surround on the front, a central relief with a strap hole, and a solid bronze mirror on the back. Remains of strap were also found. The mirror would most likely a product of the Han dynasty, “luut”ed (puns intended) by the Xiongnu.
Horse Cart of Xiongnu Noble with Horse Ornaments
Wood, leather, iron | 3rd century | Chinggis Khaan Museum
Xiongnu bred and domesticated horses in large numbers for the purposes of war and everyday life and thus horses were held in high regard. Horse ornaments and accessories were made from gold and silver and adorned with intricate and beautiful designs as with inlays of precious stones.
The Ancient Nomadic States
The fourth floor is reserved for the ancient nomadic states that dominated the Mongolian steppes between the Xiongnu and Mongol empires (between the 3rd-12th centuries).
- Rouran Empire of the 3rd to 6th century
- Turkic Empire of the 6th to 8th centuries
- Uyghur Empire of the 8th to 9th centuries
- Khitan Empire of the 10th to 12th centuries
All these empires expanded from their territories and conducted trade with Central Asia and began to bring in many cultural works from Central Asia—namely statues, writings, human stones, worshipping grounds and the mechanism of the government.
Inscription in Tomb of Pugu Yitu, Head of Uyghur Pugu Tribe
Stone | c. 678 | Chinggis Khaan Museum (Epitaph), Zanabazar Museum (Cover)
There is a tomb of Pugu Itu 仆固乙突 (635-678), the head of the Uyghur Pugu tribe, located in Shoroon Dov, Zaamar süm, Tuv province. The tomb has a 20-meter-long vestibule, and it continues dilated and has a tunnel dug underground. In addition to about 200 sacred and accompanied relics, the tomb of Pugu Yitu is unusual in that it has an inscription.
Biography of Pugu Itu 仆固乙突 (635-678)
The language of the inscription is Classical Chinese and relates the biography of Pugu Itu 仆固乙突 (635-678) the Dudu (都督) or Commander-in-Chief of the Jinweizhou (金微州) protectorate under the Tang dynasty’s Jimi system. Apart from the cover inscription measuring 75 cm x 75 cm with 4 lines of 3 characters each, the main inscription has 28 lines with 31 characters each.
Pugu Yitu is not mentioned in the Tang histories, although his grandfather Gelan Bayan is. The Pugu clan was part of the Xueyantuo, a Turkic people who filled the power vacuum in northern Mongolia after the Eastern Turkic Khaganate was defeated by the Tang Dynasty in May 630. In 647 the Pugu clan accepted the suzerainty of the Tang dynasty under the Jimi (loose rein) system and received the title Dudu (Commander-in-Chief). The first Dudu was Pugu Yitu’s grandfather Gelan Bayan (歌滥拔延), followed by Pugu Yitu’s father Sifu (思匍) who governed till 657.
Judging from the epitaph Pugu Yitu was 44 years old when he died in 678. This means he was 22 or 23 years old when he succeeded his father Sifu in the post of Dudu in 657. The inscription was laid flat on the ground in front of the brick-faced main chamber where a number of painted statuettes were found.[4] The main chamber was accessed by three arched passageways. Byzantine-style gold coins were also found. According to the inscription, in the second year of Linde (665) he participated with the Tang Emperor Gaozong in a ceremony on Mount Tai in Shandong Province. The inscription also says he carried out military campaigns against the Mohe in Eastern Manchuria as well as Tibetan Empire (吐蕃).
It is notable that General Tonyukuk’s Bain Tsokto inscriptions, dated 716, are found eastward in the valley of the same Tuul River in Nalaikh District of Ulaanbaatar. In it he states how Tang influence was still strong in his childhood and how it took him many struggles, including campaigns as far afield as Shandong Province, Tibet and Central Asia to overthrow Tang influence and restore the Turkic Khaganate.
The tomb of Pugu Yitu, also called the Shoroon Dov Kurgan, showed signs of attempted looting in ancient times. The nearby tomb of Shoroon Bumbagar was never looted and therefore was found to hold far more artifacts including an intact door, many statues and wall paintings of people, dragons and temples, although there was no inscription.
Turkic Terracottas of the Shoroon Bumbagar tomb
Clay | Turkic Period (650-700 AD)| Chinggis Khaan Museum, excavated in Zaamar sum, Tov Province (2011)
The Shoroon Bumbagar tomb is an ancient tomb in Zaamar sum, Tov Province, 160 km west of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia about 2.5 km north-east from the banks of the Tuul River and close to the 10th-century Khitan town of Khermen Denzh on the banks of the Tuul River. It was built for a Turkic nobleman between 650 and 700 AD.
About the Shoroon Bumbagar tomb
The tomb was discovered and excavated in 2011. The tomb is an example of a Chinese-style Turkic memorial complex, dated to the second half of the 7th century CE, with Chinese architectural influence due to the control of the area by the Tang dynasty at that time. It is a massive buried structure on the model of Tang dynasty tombs, which is 42 meters long, 1.8 meters wide and 7.5 meters deep. The monumental subterranean structure is characteristic of Northern Wei, Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty tombs, but not of contemporary Gök Türk tombs, which tend to be shallow and circular, forming a small elevated mound covered with rocks. The tomb of Shoroon Bumbagar was never looted and therefore was found to hold far more artefacts including an intact door, many statues and wall paintings of people, dragons and temples, although there was no inscription. 117 clay objects were discovered. About 50 Byzantine gold coins were also found in the tomb, which had been used as ornament rather than currency.
Khitan Decorative Tiles
Clay | Khitan dynasty (c.10th century) | Chinggis Khaan Museum, excavated in Khermen Denj, Zaamar süm, Tuv aimag (2012)
These artefacts were unearthed in the ruins of Khermen Denj Balgas, a large fortified town and the military centre on the northwestern border of the Khitan (Liao) Dynasty in the 10th century, located in Zaamar süm, Tuv province during the archeological excavations conducted in 2012.
During its existence, the Khitan dynasty left a rich cultural heritage, one of which is the urban buildings. The most common artefacts are building clay decorations and stepped bricks. During the Khitan period, temple roof tiles, and columns used to be decorated by mythical creatures with a fierce appearance, and five-petalled flowers.
About the wall decorations
It’s a decorative tile made of white-yellow clay and well-fired. This product depicts a human face on a flat oblong clay tile. The human facial features of eyes, eyebrows, nose, mouth, cheeks, lips, and tongue are depicted in raised ridges and sunken grooves, and the horns curling on the forehead create an unusual countenance. He has beard strands on two sides of his chin. This type of roof tile is used for the same purpose as roof antefix to decorate the corners of the roof of buildings. The feature is that each of the four corners was embellished with this type of tile with human portrayal. This type of decorative tile was widespread in the architectural designs in ancient Oriental countries, demonstrating that the architectural design and knowledge of the urban development of the Khitan Dynasty were introduced to Mongolia along with the Khitan troops stationed in the Khitan cities established on the territory of modern-day Mongolia.
About the roof tiles and antefix
The artefact was unearthed in the ruins of Chintolgoi Balgas or the city of Zhenzhou, the administrative and military centre on the northwestern border of the Khitan (Liao) Dynasty in the 10th century, located in Dashinchilen soum, Bulgan province During the archeological excavations conducted by Mongolian-Russian expedition team in 2004-2009.
This artifact is a building material, circular in shape, made of fine-grained yellow clay and well-fired, and has a zoomorphic motif on the front and broken remains of attachment to an imbrex on the reverse. An antefix is a vertical block that terminates and conceals the covering tiles of a tiled roof and serves to protect the joint from the elements. The front of this antefix displays an equine-like creature in relief enclosed by a raised circular line and a circle of raised bosses, which was manufactured with the use of a press mold made of wooden carving for mass production. Originally, the art and technology of decorating buildings with this type of antefix spread in ancient Oriental countries. The motif, design, and depiction of this antefix are identical to that of roof tiles dating from the Chinese Tang Dynasty, which presumably was introduced into Mongolia through soldiers stationed in Khitan cities established on the territory of modern-day Mongolia.
The Khitans rose to power in Northeastern Asia and established the Khitan (Liao) Dynasty in the 10-12th centuries. During their reign, the Khitans actively promoted urban construction in their territory, establishing a network of military fortification cities on the territory of modern-day Mongolia, which accommodated the Khitan soldiers and troops from northeastern Asia on military services for 3-5 years. The Khitans introduced not only their religion, culture, and arts, but also the achievements and technology in the fields of architecture and urban construction, which were left as tangible monuments of the Khitans.
Hall of Great Mongol Empire
The fifth floor belongs to the Mongol Empire, the empire that Chinggis created. A history of the Great Emperor Chinggis Khan and his ancestors, a statue bearing the seal of Rashaan Rock, a sculpture of Khabul Khan, a seal of Güyük Khan, a copy of the Great Emperor’s letter to the Pope, the clothing and furnishings of the Mongolian queen, a copy of the Great Emperor’s inscription on the Chinggis Stone, an illuminated statue of Munkh Khan, nobleman saddles made of horse teeth, embalmed corps. Other incredible items include the helmet of a Mongolian general from the 13th century, an imperial passport, and a detailed family tree of Chinggis Khaan.
Reproduction of a Mongolian Noblewoman
13th-14th century | Chinggis Khaan Museum
The remains were identified as a 13th or 14th-century Mongolian noblewoman, and was wearing two layers of rich silk clothing, and was wrapped in leather. She was buried with some standard belongings, a knife and bowl, along with luxury items such as jewelry.
Mongolian women held a high status in their society under Genghis Khan. They were actively involved in decision-making for the community, and the Great Khan enacted specific laws to protect them from kidnapping and other abuses.
Rashaan Rock (Replica)
Stone | Mongol Empire (13th-14th century) | Batshireet süm, Khentii province
The cliff site south-east of Binder Mountain at Batshireet süm in Khentii province is called Rashaan Khad (Rock). Here there are many rock art symbols and scripts dating from the Paleolitic period through to the Middle Ages. The symbols belonging to the Upper Paleolithic period can be recognised by their subject matter form such as extinct mammoth and rhino which are only depicted in outline. Many rock cut figures found at Rashaan Khad and other rocks nearby have been dated to the end of the Paleolithic period and the beginning of the Mesolithic period by the level of their complexity.
About the Sacred Binder Mountain, Batshireet süm, Khentil aimag
Located in Batshireet soum of Khentii province, sacred Binder Mountain and its associated cultural heritage sites are inseparable part of the Khentii Mountain rang in centre of which the Mongolian most sacred mountain Burkhan Khaldun is situated.
Proposed property and the sacred Burkhan Khaldun Mountain are located in same geographical zone and belong to same type of cultural landscape of same historic-cultural group, though they situated separately from each other. The nominated property bears an exceptional evidence of the existence of human beings within grassland steppe region at the juncture of Central and North East Asia, which offers a uniquely extensive view of nomadic culture and its communities from Palaeolithic time to the present.
There are many cultural, archaeological and worship vestiges dated from Palaeolithic period through the Bronze, Iron Ages and the successive historical periods including the Binder Ovoo (cairn) of the sacred Binder Mountain, stone aged archaeological sites of Rashaan Khad, the huge number of burial and ceremonial sites, deer stones and rock arts, within and around of the nominated landscape.
Within the nominated area, near the Binder Ovoo is located very famous heritage site of Rashaan Khad (rock) which embraces Palaeolithic, Neolithic Age ancient human settlements, and Hunnu, Kitan and Mongolian burial sites, rock arts, carvings of hundreds of tribal stamps and around twenty inscriptions in Orkhon-Enisei, Kitanese, Arabic-Persian, Chinese, Tibetan and Mongolian scripts covering a range of various historical periods starting from the upper Palaeolithic to the middle Ages.
The Uglugchiin Kherem or Almsgiver’s Wall is situated 8-10 km from the Binder Ovoo. This stone masonry wall with a length of approximately 3 km is laid out orderly and accurately supporting the mountain. Mongolian historian Kh. Perlee supposed that the site dates back to the Kitan Empire relying on findings and fragments of clay potteries discovered from the site.
Binder’s deer stone site is located about 2 km to the north of the Binder Ovoo. In addition to the main deer stone the site encloses 12 square burials, and two other smaller deer stones. The main deer stone is of 230 cm tall, 42 cm wide and 30 cm thick and covered with seven carved depictions of deer which go all the way around the stone.
These very rich and important cultural and worship sites are the explicit indication that the this landscape round the Binder Mountain has long standing sacred associations for the ancestors of nomadic people.
The Burkhan Khaldun and Binder Mountains have similar sacred characteristics in general with other sacred mountains including Bogd Khan and Otgontenger Mountains. They have very specific exceptional additional features and values which are not to be found in any of this serial and other sacred mountains in Mongolia. For example:
- Burkhan Khladun and Binder mountains are cradle place of origins of Mongolian nationhood and historical spiritual homeland of Mongolian people and national symbol and totem of Mongolia.
- Burkhan Khaldun and Binder Mountains have outstanding historical values associated with the history of Asia and the World. These sacred mountains and their surrounding areas are the birthplace of the Mongolian Empire which profoundly changed and shaped Eurasia in the XII-XIV centuries. There are no exact analogues to these mountains not only in Mongolia but in the World.
- Nominated mountain and surrounding sacred landscapes are holy place of Mongolian people near which Chinggis Khan was born and where probably was buried.
- Great Burkhan Khaldun Mountain and its surrounding sacred landscape including sacred Binder Mountain has a close link with worldwide famous documentary heritage, the “Secret History of the Mongols”.
Sculpture of Khabul Khan (b. 1090s/1100 – d. 1130)
Khabul Khan (b. 1090s/1100 – d. 1130) was the founder and first known Khan of the Khamag Mongol confederation and great-grandfather of Genghis Khan.
Khabul Khan became quite notable for his clashes with the Jurchens, a people who lived in Manchuria and who later established the Jin dynasty in 1115, gradually taking control over the region. In alliance with the Chinese Song dynasty, they attacked the Khitan-led Liao dynasty, and by 1122 had captured a significant portion of Liao territory. In 1135, Khabul Khan was invited to the court of the Emperor Taizong of Jin, where he famously pulled the emperor’s beard. The Jin army pursued him into southern Mongolia, but Khabul eluded capture and returned with a larger army to pillage the Jin dynasty.
About The Borjigins
The Borjigins patrilineage began with Blue-grey Wolf (Börte Chino) and Fallow Doe (Gua Maral). According to The Secret History of the Mongols, their 11th generation descendant Dobu Mergen’s widow Alan Gua the Fair was impregnated by a ray of light. Her youngest son became the ancestor of the later Borjigid. He was Bodonchar Munkhag, who along with his brothers sired the entire Mongol nation. According to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, many of the older Mongolian clans were founded by members of the Borjigin — Barlas, Urud, Manghud, Taichiut, Chonos, Kiyat, etc. The first Khan of the Mongol was Bodonchar Munkhag’s great-great-grandson Khaidu Khan. Khaidu’s grandsons Khabul Khan and Ambaghai Khan (founder of the Taichiut clan) succeeded him. Thereafter, Khabul’s sons, Hotula Khan and Yesugei, and Khabul’s grandson Temujin (Genghis Khan, son of Yesugei) ruled the Khamag Mongol. By the unification of the Mongols in 1206, virtually all of Temujin’s uncles and first cousins had died, and from then on only the descendants of Yesugei Baghatur, his brother Daritai, and nephew Onggur formed the Borjigid.
When the Jin army entered Mongolia with the intention of conquering the territories ruled by the Emperor Dezong of Liao, the founder of the Qara Khitai, or Western Liao dynasty, it was Khabul Khan who organised a Mongol confederation and led the successful effort to repel this invasion. The confederation was called the Khamag Mongol (“Whole Mongol”) and consisted of the four core clans: Khiyad, Taichuud, Jalairs, and Jurkhin. It is sometime considered a predecessor state of Genghis Khan’s empire
Read more about this period (Jin and Khitan dynasties) in Mongolian History
Chinggis Khaan’s Family Tree
Cloth, ink | 19th century | Chinggis Khaan National Museum
According to the Secret History of the Mongols, the ancestors of the Mongol people were Börte-Čino “Blue-Gray Wolf” and his spouse Qo’ai-Maral “Fallow Doe”. Their descendant Yisügei Baɣatur was the head of the Borjigid family. He was married to Ögelen from the Olqonoɣud family. And through this Borjigid lineage, a boy was born that would change the history of the Mongols forever.
Tablets of authority, such as the one pictured here, served as one of the central institutions of the Mongol Empire, giving the bearer power to requisition resources. Together with the “exemption decree“, or darqan jarliq, which rendered the holder immune from requisitions by others, they were fundamental manifestations of governance under the Mongol Empire.
Mongolian Shaman
Cloth, feathers, metal | 18th century | Chinggis Khaan Museum
This particular shaman outfit and drum are from 18th century. The principal function of the shaman is to bring about harmony and balance between the physical soul and the spirit soul of the sick person. The shaman costume and equipment are a crucial part of his or her work. Generally based in the past on a leather caftan, the shaman’s cloak is a melange of extraordinarily complex elements intended both for symbolic purposes and to create an impressive magical effect.
The shaman’s head-covering includes eagle feathers and a metallic fringe. Genghis Khan himself followed the traditional Mongolian religious beliefs, which include veneration of the Blue Sky or Eternal Heaven.
Ger Cart Wheel-Hub
Cast-iron | Mongol Empire (13th-14th century) | Chinggis Khaan Museum
Xixia State (1038-1227) Glazed Roof Tiles
Pottery | Early 13th century | Chinggis Khaan Museum
Genghis Khan first planned for war with the Xi Xia 西夏 or Western Xia, correctly believing that the young, more powerful ruler of the Jin Dynasty would not come to the Xia Dynasty’s aid. His very first attempt to gain power started in 1205, the year before he was named supreme ruler on Mongol lands, and his initial attacks were based on a flimsy political pretext. However, he realized that this region would be an ideal gateway to conquering the Jin Dynasty to the south and east.
Despite initial difficulties in capturing the Xi Xia’s well-defended cities, Genghis Khan forced their surrender with multiple siege battles in 1209 and 1210. Genghis’s relentless battle tactics showed to great effect in the Xi Xia territory.
Gold Imperial Gerege With Chinese Inscription
Gilded Copper | Mongol Empire (c. 1206-1227) | Chinggis Khaan National Museum
The inspiration for the design of the main entrance of this museum, a gerege was a tablet carried by Mongol officials and envoys to signify certain privileges and authority. The inscription says 天賜成吉思皇帝聖旨疾 which translates to “Heaven Sent Chinggis Emperor Imperial Decree”, with two Khitan words on the back. They enabled Mongol nobles and officials to demand goods and services from civilian populations.
These tablets were known most commonly in the Mongol Empire as paizas, a Persian reading of the Chinese paizi, “tablet.” The Mongolian name, gerege, meaning “that which bears witness,” is found only in Mongolian-language texts.
To attract foreign or overseas merchants and talents, the Great Khan gave them paizas exempting them from taxes and allowing them to use relay stations. Marco Polo, who visited the Yuan dynasty during the reign of Kublai Khan (r. 1260–1294), left a good description of the paiza.
Portraits of the Khaans and Queens of the Borjilid Dynasty
Since the transfer of the Mongol dynasties from China to Mongolia, there have been more than 20 khans, the descendants of Chinggis Khan until the last khan, Ligdan Khutagtu.
Pax Mongolica
The resulting Mongolian empire at around Genghis Khan’s death in 1227 extended from the China’s Pacific coast to Eastern Europe. This meant that the Silk Road network, which had been dangerous to travel due to the warring kingdoms along the route, fell completely under Mongol control in a period known as “Pax Mongolica“.
Stele of Möngke Khan 釋迦院碑記
Stone | Mongol Empire (c. 1257); 丁已年（元宪宗7年，公元1257年）六月二十五日 女婿八立托和公主一悉基立碑) | Chinggis Khaan Museum, discovered at in Arbulag süm, Khövsgöl aimag
The stele was engraved by the son-in-law of Möngke Khan, a nobleman from Oirad Tribe 瓦剌 named Barstoge. On the left side of the inscription is 3 lines of Uyghur Mongolian, wishing Möngke Khan a long life, asking for blessings for his descendants and himself; on the right side is 12 lines of 268 Chinese characters, describing the origin of the monument. The stone tablet was installed on a thick granite base. The stone tablet and the base were 184cm high and weighed about a ton. At that time, it was preserved in a temple site. In 1953, it was discovered by the expedition team of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences on the north bank of the Deliger River in Arbulag süm, Khövsgöl aimag. In 1956, it was handed over to the National Museum of Mongolia, and now to Chinggis Khaan Museum.
Coins in Circulation in the Different Parts of Mongol Khagnates
By the time of Kublai’s death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate polities: the Golden Horde Khanate in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in the middle, the Ilkhanate in the southwest, and the Yuan dynasty in the east based in modern-day Beijing
Gold Dinar of Möngke Khan (c.1262)
Gold, from Mosul, Iran | Golden Horde Khanate (13th-16th century) | Chinggis Khaan Museum
This gold dinar was minted in 1262 during the Toluid Civil War (1260–1264) when Kublai Khan was fighting for the khaganate against Ariq Böke. Although victorious, the unified Mongol Empire was not more. This dinar came from Mosul (modern day Iran) and was inscribed the Arabic name of the late khagan, Möngke Khan.
The gold dinar started circulation about 690 – 700 A.D. It averaged 4.25 grams of gold and was based in part on the Byzantine solidi (some were found in the Xiongnu tomb mentioned above). this would make it a coin of about as pure in gold as was possible in that time period. This
Güyük Khan’s Letter to Pope Innocent IV (Copy) and Seal of the Khan
Paper, ink (letter); Gold (seal) | 1246 | The Vatican Secret Archive, Rome
The third Khagan of the empire (r. 1246-1248), Güyük Khan (1206-1248) wrote a letter to Pope Innocent IV on the relations between the Church and the Mongols. “You must say with a sincere heart: ‘We will be your subjects; we will give you our strength’. You must in person come with your kings, all together, without exception, to render us service and pay us homage. Only then will we acknowledge your submission. And if you do not follow the order of God, and go against our orders, we will know you as our enemy.”
According to Plano Carpini, the Russian handicraftsman, Kozma, made a seal for Güyük Khan. This seal might have been a seal used to stamp the letter to Pope Innocent IV.
Brass Canister with Lid
Brass (Height: 7.5cm, Diameter: 4cm) | Mongol Empire (14th-15th century) | Chinggis Khaan National Museum
Blue Enamel Copper Pot
Copper, Enamel (Height: 12cm, Diameter: 9cm | Mongol Empire (14th-15th century) | Chinggis Khaan National Museum
Brass bowl with Ulzii Pattern
Brass (Height: 6cm, Diameter: 8cm) | Mongol Empire (14th-15th century) | Chinggis Khaan National Museum
Copper With Silver Trim Jug
Copper, Silver (Height: 15cm, Diameter: 11cm | Mongol Empire (14th-15th century) | Chinggis Khaan National Museum
Islamic Brass Pitcher with Calligraphy
Silver and Copper (Height: 7cm, Diameter: 5.5cm) | Mongol Empire (14th-15th century) | Chinggis Khaan National Museum
The lid is decorated with a woven pattern. On the body, there are musicians and servants sitting with the noble and the queen on both sides, and at the bottom, a line pattern in the form of sun rays is carved.
The brass bowl is inlaid in silver and copper, with calligraphy and Ulzii pattern, representing growth of knowledge, wealth, happiness and good karma.
The nomadic culture of Mongolians greatly influences their national patterns. These patterns, which decorate palaces, monasteries, tents, and Gers, each carry a specific meaning. There are over 1500 national patterns in Mongolia, divided into five main categories: geometrical, animal, plant, natural phenomena, and religious.
Pharaonic Maskettes
Obsidian | Mongol Empire (13th-14th century) | Kharakhorum, Kharkhorin sum, Ovörkhangai aimag
Temple Wall Decoration
Clay | 13th century | Kharakhorum, Kharkhorin sum, Ovörkhangai aimag
Obsidian is a stone that is said to have powerful metaphysical properties. It is often used for crystal healing and meditation. Obsidian is said to be a stone of protection and can help shield you from negative energy.
Building decoration depicting the face of a smiling man. In addition to bringing out a person’s smile clearly, the teeth and lips are embossed and made different colors. It seems that the relic was used for decoration on the walls of the building.
Horseshoe Folding Chair
Wood, brass | 14th century? | Chinggis Khaan Museum
The horseshoe folding chair evolved from the folding chair that was a common stool that the Xiongnu warriors would carry with them. Although the horseshoe version did appear since the Song dynasty, this looked more like a Ming version. Anyway, it was the letter that was placed next to it that was really interesting.
The History of Asragch Асрагч Нэртийн Түүх (Mongolian History from Chinggis to Toghon Temür Khan)
Thin paper, black ink (28.9×8.9 cm) | Northern Yuan dynasty, 1667 | Chinggis Khaan Museum
This Mongolian historical source, commissioned in 1677 by Khalkh Sain Noyon Khan’s great-grandfather Jamba, a warrior, is a valuable work of Mongolian history, written directly by the author of the “The Secret History of the Mongols“. In particular, there are documents about the historical events and historical figures of 15 years in Khalkh seven counties after 1662. This is the only original copy that has been found.
In the course of a comparative study by scientists, 90 percent of 282 items of the “The Secret History of the Mongols” revealed interesting facts that somehow entered the “The History of Asragch”. Written in Mongolian script, 28 lines in black ink, with a wooden pen.
Beginning of the End
The Toluid Civil War (1260-1264), and the wars that followed it, such as the Berke–Hulagu war and the Kaidu–Kublai war (1268–1301), weakened the authority of the Great Khan over the Mongol Empire and split the empire into autonomous khanates.
Yuan Dynasty Coinage
Copper | Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) | Chinggis Khaan Museum
The Yuan dynasty was a Mongol-ruled Chinese dynasty which existed from 1271 to 1368. After the conquest of the Western Xia, Western Liao, and Jin dynasties they allowed for the continuation of locally minted copper currency, as well as allowing for the continued use of previously created and older forms of currency (from previous Chinese dynasties), while they immediately abolished the Jin dynasty’s paper money as it suffered heavily from inflation due to the wars with the Mongols.
After the conquest of the Song dynasty was completed, the Yuan dynasty started issuing their own copper coins largely based on older Jin dynasty models, though eventually the preferred Yuan currency became the Jiaochao and silver sycees, as coins would eventually fall largely into disuse. Although the Mongols at first preferred to have every banknote backed up by gold and silver, high government expenditures forced the Yuan to create fiat money in order to sustain government spending.
Silk Mongolian Deel (13th Century)
Silk fabric, cashmere, silk threads | 13th century, Mongol Empire | Chinggis Khaan Museum
A deel is an item of traditional clothing commonly worn by Mongols and Turkic and Tungusic peoples for centuries, and can be made from cotton, silk, wool, or brocade.
This must have been owned by a royalty, as the embroidery was intricate and the details were lavish, as shown in the ornaments found with the deel.
Letter of Kublai Khan’s Envoy to Japan (Replica)
Paper, ink (Size: 39.3×29.5cm) | Kublai Khan reign (r. 1264-1294) | Original at Tenri University, Nara Prefecture
Written in black ink on paper, it was an eight-page copy of the letter in kanji from Kublai Khan‘s envoy to the Japanese Emperor Kameyama (r. 1260-1274) demanding their submission, citing the example of the peaceful submission of Goryeo. Some pages are blank. Copied from the original letter kept in the library of Tenri University, Nara Prefecture, Japan.
Mongolian Military Helmet
Bronze | Yuan Dynasty (13th-14th century) | Chinggis Khaan Museum, discovered in Japan
This helmet was probably lost in Japan during the failed conquests of 1274 or 1281 by Kublai Khan’s troops. Similar helmets can be found in many Eastern nations such as India Mughals, Crimea, Persia, Georgia, and few others in later centuries, probably influenced by the Mongol Empire.
From the inside of the iron helmet, traces of repeated hammering on the special mould of the helmet can be clearly seen.
The Stele in “Xuanwei Army” City
Stone | Mongul Empire (13th-14th century) | Chinggis Khaan Museum
Kaidu, from the Ögedei family, believed that a member of the Ögedeids deserved the title of Great Khan and started an insurrection in 1269 against Kublai that lasted for decades.
In 1277, a group of Genghisid princes under Möngke’s son Seregi rebelled, kidnapping Kublai’s two sons and his general Antong. The rebels handed Antong to Kaidu and the princes to Mengu-Timur. Seregi supported Ariq Böke during the Toluid Civil War (1260-1264).
With the new capital in Dadu 大都 (modern day Beijing), the Yuan army established Lingbei Province 岭北行中书省 at Karakorum in 1278 (至元十五年), and stationed the Xuanwei Army 宣威军 to quash the rebellion of Seregi and stop the rebellion of Kaidu.
The conclusion of Kaidu-Kublai War
In 1293 Tutugh, a Kipchak commander of Kublai Khan occupied the Baarin tumen, who were allies of Kaidu, on the Ob River. Kublai Khan died in the next year and was succeeded by Temür Khan (Emperor Chengzong). From 1298 on Duwa increased his raids on the Yuan. He launched a surprise attack against the Yuan garrison under Temür’s uncle Kokechu in Mongolia and captured Temür’s grandson-in-law, George of the Ongud when he and his commanders were drunk. However, Duwa was defeated by the Yuan army under Ananda in Gansu and his son-in law and several relations were captured. Although, Duwa and the Yuan generals agreed to exchange their prisoners, Duwa and Kaidu executed George in revenge and cheated the Yuan officials. To reorganize the Yuan defence system in Mongolia, Temür appointed Darmabala’s son Khayishan to replace Kokechu. The Yuan army defeated Kaidu south of the Altai Mountains. However, in 1300, Kaidu defeated Khayishan’s force. Then Kaidu and Duwa mobilized a large army to attack Karakorum the next year. The Yuan army suffered heavy losses while both sides could not make any decisive victory in September. Duwa was wounded in the battle and Kaidu died soon thereafter.
Until this time Kaidu had waged almost continuous warfare for more than 30 years against Kublai and his successor Temür, though he eventually died in 1301 after the battle near Karakorum. The Kaidu–Kublai war had effectively deepened the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire, although a peace later came in 1304 which established the nominal suzerainty of the Yuan Emperors (or Khagans) over the western khanates.
Rise of the Foreign Powers
By the 17th century, the power of Mongolia had weakened considerably, and it had gradually come under the control of the Manchu Qing Dynasty (1644–1911). Khalkha Mongolia fought for its independence for about 50 years after Inner Mongolia was subjugated, but due to pressure from powerful empires in the south and the north, as well as internal strife and conflicts, it was subjugated by the Qing dynasty.
Stele of Toono Mountain (Qing Dynasty)
Stone | 35th Year of Kangxi (1696) | Chinggis Khaan Museum, retrieved from Toono Buga, Delgerkhaan Soum, Khentii province (c. 1960)
The stele was established on 12th day of the fifth month in 1696 (康熙三十五年歲次丙子五月丙辰钥十二日丁卯) to commemorate a victory during the first Dzungar-Qing war. Behind the stele was the sad history of the Dzungar Genocide of 1758.
The Dzungar-Qing War 準噶爾之役 (1755–1758) started during the reign of Emperor Kangxi (r. 1661-1722), the conquest was finished by his grandson, Emperor Qianlong (r. 1735-1796). Subsequently in 1758, when Dzungaria was occupied by the Manchus, all Mongolian steppes came under foreign rule. The Mongols were under the Manchu’s rule from 1636 to 1910. The Manchu emperor owned the land, while the governors were allocated to the khoshuu land and given the right to inherit it from time to time.
Gold Decree of Princess Gulun Kejing 晋封固伦恪靖公主册文
Gold | 1st Year of Qing Emperor Yongzheng (1724) | Chinggis Khaan Museum (Originally at National Museum of Mongolia)
In November of the 36th year of Kangxi (1697), the sixth daughter of the Emperor Kangxi, Princess Kejing 恪靖公主 (1679-1743) was conferred Princess Heshuo 和硕公主 and married Dondubdorj 敦多布多尔济 (1698-1701), the seventh Khan of the Tüsheet Khanate, whose granduncle was Zanabazar, the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu. In February of the first year of Yongzheng (1724), Princess Kejing was awarded the title of Princess Gulun Kejing 固伦恪靖公主, the highest honour for a princess, as indicated in this golden decree 金册.
Full Chinese text of the Gold Decree of Princess Gulun Kejing 晋封固伦恪靖公主册文
雍正元年歲次癸卯七月戊寅朔越八日乙酉皇帝制曰：彎書申錫，恩必厚於本支，象服增崇，誼每殷於同氣，載稽今典，用賁殊榮。咨爾恪靖公主乃聖祖仁皇帝之第六女也，毓秀紫薇，分輝銀漢，承深宮之至訓，無怠遵循，緬女史之芳規，宜懷龜勉。朕攢承大寶，仰體鴻慈，聿弘錫類之仁，特沛絲綸之命，是用封爾為恪靖固倫公主，錫之金冊。謙以持盈，彌礪敬慕之節，貴而能儉，尚昭柔順之風，克樹令儀，永膺多福，欽哉！
Road to Independence
In the summer of 1911, the princes and nobles of Chinggis Khan’s golden lineage gathered secretly at the Nukht mouth of Bogdo Mountain during the offering of a danshig for Bogdo Jibzundamba and began the great task of re-declaring their independence.
Subsequently, as a result of the active struggle for the cause of the revolution, on December 29, 1911, Mongolia restored its independence and statehood, declared it to the world, installed the 8th Bogdo Jibzundamba on the throne, and established the first government consisted of five ministries.
Read more about this period between Qing Dynasty and Mongolia’s road to independence in this previous post.
Pride of Mongolia
The eighth floor offers artifacts that show how Mongolia participated in shaping the modern-day Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Notably the exhibits demonstrate how Mongols were able to conduct advanced warfare on horseback and perform supreme skill at archery. Arrows dating back 300 years hang overhead as if set loose in unison. Here visitors can also see the Italian sword brought to the Yuan dynasty by Marco Polo.
13th Century Stone Turtle Near Erdene Zuu Monastery, Kharkhorin (Karakorum)
Stone | 13th century | Chinggis Khaan Museum, found near Erdene Zuu Monastery
The stone turtle is called Pixi 贔屭 and is the mystical ninth son of the dragon. Stone sculptures of Bixi have been used in Chinese culture for centuries as a decorative plinth for commemorative steles and tablets.
Read more about Karakorum and the Erdene Zuu Monastery in another post.
Buddha Footprint On White Marble Stone
The Buddha’s soles are marked by thousand-spoked Dharma wheels and accompanied by the sign of the swastika. Thousand-spoked wheels symbolise the selfless attitude of serving others of the Dharma.
Tsam Dance Mask of Zamindi
Papier mache | 18th-19th century | Chinggis Khaan Museum, originally at Choijin Lama Temple Museum
Maitreya Bodhisattva
Attributed to Zanabazar (1635–1723); gilt bronze with blue pigment in the hair and traces of other pigments in the eyes and mouth | 1680s | Chinggis Khaan Museum, originally at Choijin Lama Temple Museum
Tsam dance was not introduced to Mongolia until the early 19th century, however it rapidly gained popularity and visibility with celebrations such as the Tsam festival and the opera Tale of the Moon Cuckoo. Tsam came to incorporate both tantric and older shamanistic elements of dance. It became a significant part of Buddhism in Mongolia before it was banned under communist rule in 1924.
Zamindi is the Patron Goddess of Religion. She wears a crown with five jags, made from skulls, with a Third Eye of Wisdom in the middle of the forehead. In one hand she holds a trident, and the other a chalice made from human skulls that is called gabela.
Maitreya, the buddha of the future, appears in a standing bodhisattva form as a slim and youthful figure holding a ritual ewer (kundika) in his left hand and assuming a gesture of discourse (vitarka mudra) with his right hand lifted to his chest. Maitreya’s second main attribute, a stupa, is piled high on the hair. A deer skin, another attribute of Maitreya, is seen hanging on the left shoulder.
Many Mongolian and Tibetan high lamas have taught that the standing Maitreya Bodhisattva’s footsteps signify the coming of the golden age. Maitreya is the Bodhisattva, or Buddha of loving kindness & of the future.
The Traditional Mongolian Ger
Mongolia may be best known for its vast plains and never ending desert landscapes but there is also rich culture in crafts and design hidden inside its homes.
The Ger which simply means home, is a traditional Mongolian wood-framed dwelling structure. It is often wrongly referred to as a yurt but it differs slightly in its design, the Mongolian Ger has one or more columns to support the crown and straight roof poles. While a yurt has steam bent poles stretching up from the ground.
About Chinggis Khaan National Museum
The newly opened Chinggis Khaan Museum is located behind Suukhbaatar Square, right across the junction from the National Museum of Mongolia.
- The museum’s summer hours begin May 15 and end September 15. During this time the museum is open Sunday to Saturday 9:00 – 18:00.
- The museum’s winter hours go into effect September 16 through May 14, when the museum is open Tuesday to Sunday from 9:00 – 17:00 and is closed on Mondays.
- If you’d like to take photos inside the museum, a 20,000 tugrik photo ticket must be purchased.
One more thing….
The artefact and display information are written in Mongolian (using Cyrillic letters), as well as Mongol bichig, the ancient traditional script written in vertical lines and read from top to bottom, left to right. QR codes can be scanned to get additional information in English and Russian, requiring a phone and internet connection, if you’re interested in reading this information during your visit.
If not, take the picture of the QR code next to the exhibits and then you can read them later in the hotel or at home. Else you would not be able to find it on the website.
Visited May 2023
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