Between 1911 and 1921, Mongolians struggled to free themselves from Chinese domination, appealing to Western nations, Japan and Russia for aid. Russians came to their support, only to leave after 70 years.
These are the stories and history behind the artefacts of Hall 8 and 9 of the National Museum of Mongolia (NMM), which exhibits the period of political changes in Mongolia between 1911 to 1995.
Table of Contents
Fight for Freedom (1911-1924)
After many centuries under China’s Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) control, the Mongols once again became independent in 1911 under the rule of their national Buddhist leader, Bogdo Jivzundamba Khutugtu (1870-1924) aka. Bogd Khan. However, their independence was assured primarily because Communist Russia and Nationalist China faced off against each other. In 1915, Kyahta Treaty was signed between Tsarist Russia, Nationalist China and Mongolia, forcing Mongolia to accept the status of “autonomy under China”.
The Last King of Mongolia, Bogdo Jivzundamba Khutugtu (1870-1924) and Queen Dondogdulam (1874-1923)
Wax figures | Year unknown | Artist M. Chimeddorj
The Chinese took advantage of the 1917 Communist Revolution which put Russia in turmoil to invade and cruelly subjugate the Mongolians. By 1919, Chinese troops occupied Khüree (present day Ulaanbaatar) and put an end to the autonomous status. At that time the communist revolution was taking Russia by storm.
Remains of Weapons from the Battle Site “Ulaan Khad”
Iron | March 1921 | Ulaan Khad, Lün sum, Tov aimag
At the invitation of the Mongolian government in 1921, Tsar Russian soldiers, running from the Communist Reds, defeated the Chinese conquerors, and took control of Mongolia while retaining the Bogd Khan as a puppet ruler.
The Unfortunate Case of Baron Ungern
Roman von Ungern-Sternberg (1886-1921) or Baron Ungern, was an anti-communist general in the Russian Civil War and then an independent warlord who intervened in Mongolia against China.
The Bolsheviks started infiltrating Mongolia shortly after the October Revolution, long before they took control of the Russian Transbaikal. In 1921, various Red Army units belonging to Soviet Russia and to the Far Eastern Republic invaded the newly independent Mongolia to defeat Ungern. The forces included the Red Mongolian leader Damdin Sükhbaatar.
He was taken prisoner by the Red Army and, a month later, was put on trial for “counter-revolution” in Novonikolayevsk (now Novosibirsk). He was found guilty after a six-hour show trial, and on 15 September 1921 he was executed.
A Hero Was Born – Damdin Sukhbaatar
Soon people found the Tsarist Russian as brutal as the Chinese, and groups of Mongolian nationalists approached the advancing Bolshevik forces for help. In mid-1921, Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Army, with assistance from the Bolshevik, freed Mongolia from Tsar Russians and Chinese and announced independence. Mongolian People’s Party founded a new government and restored Bogd Khan as nominal head of state.
Deel, Jacket and Pouch of Chief Commander Of Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Army – Damdin Sukhbaatar
Silk cloth, wood and brass | 1921
The hero of the day was Damdin Sukhbaatar (1893-1923) who smuggled out a letter from the Bogd Khan hidden in his hollowed out horsewhip asking Bolshevik Russians for help. This deel was worn by Sukhbaatar in Niislel Khüree (present day Ulaanbaatar) after Altanbulag liberation.
Magnag Caftan/Deel Of Chief Commander And First Minister Of Military, Damdin Sukhbaatar
Silk, leather | 1922
He returned at the head of the Mongolian Partisan Army, which became Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Army, with Bolshevik Russian to liberate Khüree on 6 July 1921, which started the Soviet Communist rule for the next 70 years. Bogd Khan gave the honorary title “Beis” (貝子) to Sükhbaatar for his heroic contributions in achieving national independence.
Seal box of Commander-in-Chief Sükhbaatar
Wood, silver, precious stones | 1920s | Mongolia
This square wooden box was decorated with patterns made of silver, with the top of the box inlaid with coral and turquoise. It was locked with a Mongolian traditional lock.
Socialist Mongolia (1924-1991)
After a Soviet-backed revolution in 1921, the Mongolian People’s Republic (MPR) was established on 26 November 1924, becoming the second Communist nation in the world.
Stationery of Prime Minister Balingiin Tserendorj
Precious stones | Late 19th century
The government took control of the Bogd Khan’s seal after his death on 20 May 1924 according to the Constitution of the Mongolian People’s Republic drafted by the first Prime Minister of MPR (1923-1928) Balingiin Tserendorj (1868-1928), officially bringing to an end of the Bogd Khaganate.
Stationery of Marshall Kh. Choibalsan
Silver | 1945 | Khatanbaatar Magsarjav cooperative of Zavkhan Aimag (manuf)
It was led from 1939 to 1952 by Khorloogiin Choibalsan (1895-1952), who carried out Stalinist purges in the country, and from 1952 to 1984 by Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal (1916-1991, his statue is in front of the National Academic Drama Theatre), who allied with the Soviets during the 1960s Sino-Soviet split.
The First Banknotes of the People’s Government
Paper | 1921
These non-circulating banknotes were called “dollar” and issued on the initiative of the first Minister of Finance, Soliin Danzan (1885-1924). Danzan orchestrated the purge and execution of Mongolia’s first Prime Minister, Dogsomyn Bodoo in 1922. He exploited the angry public backlash to Bodoo’s unpopular campaign (initially instigated by the Soviets) to “modernise” the people by forcibly cutting off “feudal” ornaments from Mongolian deels such as large cuffs, women’s jewellery, and even long hair. He was himself purged and executed in 1924.
Coins of the MPR in Circulation (1925, 1938, 1959, 1970)
Silver, Copper, Nickel Alloy, Aluminium, etc | 1925-1970
Danzan was vilified as a Japanese spy and a whisper campaign accused him of murdering Mongolia’s revolutionary hero Sükhbaatar who had died unexpectedly in 1923 at the young age of 30. According to historian Batbayar, following their executions, “Bodoo and Danzan were stigmatised by official historians as traitors and counter-revolutionaries and their services to the revolution have for the most part been ignored or neglected.”
Russian Traditional Drinking Vessel Set “Kovsh”
Brass, enamel and precious stones | 1925 | Ovchinniko Jewellery Factory
From 1924 to 1990 in the Mongolian People’s Republic, all social sectors including economy, culture and politics were directly dependent on the USSR and the perpetrator of the USSR Communist Party’s guidance and leadership was the Central Committee of the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party and its Political Bureau. The vessel set was presented by the Soviet Union on the first anniversary of the MPR proclamation.
“Felix” “ФЕЛИКС” Mechanical Calculator
Iron | 1929-1979 | Schetmash factory, Soviet Union
For the next 70 years, although remaining independent, Mongolia was a satellite country to the Soviet Union. Mongolian government was turned into a puppet, controlled by Soviet Union, executing orders issued by the Kremlin.
Emblem of the Mongolian People’s Republic
Embroidery | 1940
From the subtle change of fabrics to the blatant absence of religious objects, the new government’s influence on life is apparent everywhere. Clothing, once made of Tibetan or Chinese silk, is now made of Russian cotton, and the style of women’s clothing is greatly modified. In place of the Buddhist altar, a chest of drawers displays family photos. Schoolbooks and newspapers are also new additions, attesting to increased educational opportunities for all people.
Cultural and Political Purges
Between 1930 and 1940 at least one third of the male population of Mongolia was slaughtered by order of the communist party in far-away Moscow. Religious figures, intellectuals, and anyone who might be a threat to the communist party was killed or exiled to Siberia. Monks from entire monasteries were shot and piled into mass graves, monasteries destroyed, and much of Mongolia’s cultural heritage was looted or obliterated. Out of 700 Buddhist monasteries in the country, only four had escaped complete destruction. Images of Chinggis Khan were prohibited while portraits of Lenin and Staling were hanged on the walls of families.
Orders and Badges of the MPR
When I was doing my research for this article, I came across older photos of dioramas of these incidents. Unfortunately these were not there anymore when I visited. I guess with thawing relationships with Russia, these were “sensitive” topics to cover.
Two Sides to the Coin
On the other hand, the Soviet influence also brought to Mongolia, with its massive resources, infrastructure for transportation, communication and civil services such as education and health in Mongolia.
During communist times Mongolia attained a 97% literacy rate, one of the highest around the world, and saw drastically reduced rates of infant and child mortality. Adult health improved greatly with the introduction of education in sanitary measures, and the advent of running water and sewage systems.
Many Mongolians were sent to Russian to receive educations in scientific, engineering, and medical professions. The vast herds of the Mongols were collectivised, and the nomads were given new administrative jobs in settlements designed to create a more fixed, and therefore controllable, civilised population.
Socialist Mongolia Silver Awards to Honoured Herders
Silver | 1945
The silver board and moulded cattle figure were awarded to State-honoured herders since 1944.
Sample of Products Manufactured by Jewellery Decoration Factory
Gold, silver and brass | 1980
Mongolia’s First Cosmonaut Suit
Cosmonaut suit | 1981
Soyuz 39 was a 1981 Soviet crewed space flight to the Salyut 6 space station. It was the fifteenth expedition, and carried the eighth international crew to the orbiting facility. The flight carried Jügderdemidiin Gürragchaa (b.1974) into space. With this mission, Gürragchaa became the first Mongolian, and second Asian cosmonaut.
The Zaisan Memorial, a monument south of Ulaanbaatar dedicated to Russian–Mongolian friendship, includes a mural which depicts amongst its scenes Gürragchaa’s 1981 flight.
Sükhbaatar Meeting with Lenin
Bronze | 1981 | Dashdeleg (sculptor, 1928-1994), Painting | Unknown Date
The sculpture of Sükhbaatar’s meeting with Lenin in 1921 was taken into space by Cosmonaut Gurragchaa. Made by sculptor L. Dashdeleg, it was based on a propaganda poster from the early 20th century of the supposed meeting.
Products of Gobi Company Established with the Assistance of Japan
Cashmere, camel wool, sheepskin | 1987
Besides Soviet’s assistance, Mongolia also received economic assistance from Czechoslovakia and Japan. These Gobi products were made with machineries from Japan in 1987. Gobi products are now sought after around the world for their quality cashmere wool products.
Democratic Mongolia (1991-present)
Democratic Revolution of the Year of the White Horse (1990) was the climax of the 20th century for Mongolia’s struggle for independence and liberty.
Bat-Erdeniin Batbayar aka. Baabar, “History of Mongolia – From World Power to Soviet Satellite”
When the Soviet Union went through fundamental political changes (perestroika) in the late 1980s, it signalled equally important changes for the People’s Republic of Mongolia. Sensitive to the developments in their communist neighbours, Mongolia’s national consciousness was awakened. Political groups and clubs were established with the objective of calling for social justice, freedom and democratization.
Suit and Other Belongings of Sanaasüreng Zorig
On 10 December 1989, the Mongolian Democratic Union (MDU) was formed. Sanaasüreng Zorig (1962-1998), a teacher at the State National University, was elected as ‘General Coordinator’ of MDU. People participating in demonstrations held hands and urged others to join their cause for freedom with songs and slogans.
At the same event, the song “Ringing of the Bell” (Honkhny duu) was performed for the first time. This song is considered the anthem of all Mongolian democratic movements of the late 80s – early 90s.
Guitar and Songs by Sosorbaram Tsogtsaikhan
Sosorbaram Tsogtsaikhan (1960-2004), founder of the “New Generation” underground political group, one of the founders of the Mongolian Democratic Association and Mongolian Democratic Party, was the lead singer of the band “Khonkh” (“The Bell”).
Demonstration of 4 March 1990
On March 4, 1990, the fifth demonstration was held at Victory Square. A large crowd of 90,000 people gathered. The demonstrators demanded a special convention of the Congress of the Mongolian Revolutionary Party to replace the standing members of the Central Committee and to separate the Party’s activities from the Government.
Oil Painting of Democratic Leaders
Following the Government’s failure to consider these demands, a group of protestors went on a hunger strike in Sukhbaatar Square. As a result, the Government agreed to round-table discussions, accepting calls for democratic reforms.
The demonstrations drew increasing numbers of participants. A great number of other parties were founded. Their names reflected the broad range of topics people felt needed to be addressed. These included the Democratic Socialist Union, New Progressive Unions, Mongolian Social Democratic Party, Mongolian National Democratic Party, Free Labour Party and Mongolian Green Party.
In the summer of 1990, the first free elections were held. In the election, the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party (MPRP) obtained a majority and remained in Government. Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat (b.1942) was elected as the first President of Mongolia.
The First Democratic Parliament
In 1991 the structure of the Mongolian Parliament was decided, taking the form of two chambers, the State Great Hural and the State Small Hural. On January 13, 1992 a new Constitution was adopted and the country’s designated name changed from the People’s Republic of Mongolia to, simply, Mongolia.
Mongolia’s 2nd President Natsagiin Bagabandi’s Ceremonial Clothes
Silk, cloth, silver and coral | 6 Jun 1997
The collapse of the communist system brought two significant changes to Mongolia – the end of Russian subsidies and funding for development, and the transition to a market economy. Mongolia went into economic recession, followed by a collapse in the banking system in 1995.
In the elections of 1996 the Democratic Party won, establishing the first ever democratic government.
S. Zorig was the Minister of Infrastructure but his rising political career was cut short when he was murdered on 2 Oct 1998 in his apartment. Democrat Prime Minister Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj resigned because of a financial scandal and Zorig was earmarked to take over. The crime remains unsolved; many believe corrupt parliament members hired people to kill him to stop him becoming the PM.
Mongolia’s 4th President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj’s Ceremonial Clothes
Silk, cloth, silver and gemstone | 7 Jul 2013
In the 2000 election the MPRP won again, and in the 2004 election the Democratic Party won by a tight margin.
The transition to a Democratic Republic has brought about relatively stable government, and peaceful transfers of power, while election results reflect a struggle between the desire for the stability and state support of the past and an equally deep desire for a free economy and liberal business policies.
National Borders on 2016
Mongolia is the world’s largest landlocked country that does not border a closed sea, and much of its area is covered by grassy steppe, with mountains to the north and west and the Gobi Desert to the south. Ulaanbaatar, the capital and largest city, is home to roughly half of the country’s population.
Bronze Statue with Soyombo
Bronze | 2016
Bronze statues with Soyombo, which symbolise the sovereignty of Mongolian border, were placed on the four furthest corners of the country on 29 Dec 2016. The Soyombo is attributed to Zanabazar, the 17th century leader of Mongolian Buddhism, a great statesman, and the father of Mongolian art and script.
Mongolia and the People’s Republic of China signed a “Border contract between Mongolia and China” on December 26, 1962, for the southern border. The border line was marked on-site during 1962-1964 according to the “Protocol on the matter of border between Mongolia and China,” which was signed on June 30, 1964. Both sides examined the border line during 1982-1984 and had a second checkup from 2001 to 2005. According to the “Border contract between Mongolia and China” on December 26, 1962, Mongolia’s southern border was internationally approved by the registration of 14375 of International contracts and treaties from the Department of Secretariat of the United Nations on October 9, 1975.
The border between Mongolia and Russia was determined by several treaties and contracts over the years. These include the Nerchuu border contract between Tsarist Russia and the Manchu in 1689, when Mongolia was under Manchu Qing rule, the Buur contract of 1727, the Protocol of Tarvagtai in 1864, and the Contract of Saint-Petersburg in 1881. The northern border of Mongolia was later redefined by agreements between Mongolia and the Soviet Union in 1958 and 1976. The physical demarcation of the border took place in 1959-1960 and 1977-1979 based on these protocols, and the mutual inspection was completed in 1987-1996.
In recent years, Mongolia has been experiencing economic growth and increased prosperity, largely due to the inflow of foreign investment and the exploitation of mineral resources. As educated Mongolians, business people, and younger people find jobs in the cities and new industries of Mongolia, nomadic herders find it increasingly necessary to participate in the market economy and are becoming less reliant on government promises to provide services in a system where social subsidies have become meaninglessly small.
Final Thoughts
It is with much emotion that Mongolians reflect on the communist experience. The communist regime brought modernity, science, and many positive things to Mongolia, along with education in professions that would not have been accessible to Mongolians for perhaps several more decades. At the same time, the fierce independence and self-determination of the Mongols was broken, an entire cultural heritage was stripped within the space of a generation.
However, the Mongolians managed to be one of the few countries to transition to democracy without bloodshed or violence. A young democracy now faces the demands of universal suffrage. One of the challenges of Mongolia is the economy and its reliance on mining. They would have to find new paths for themselves.
About National Museum of Mongolia
National Museum of Mongolia is an ideal place for those who are eager to discover the origins of Mongolian history, culture and tradition. It showcases over 6,000 pieces artefacts dated from pre-historic time to present-day Mongolia.
History of the Museum
1924 : Central Museum
Mongolia’s first museum opened to the public in 1924, but that was the precursor to Natural History Museum (which was confusingly called National Museum). The collections started at that time were for a natural museum, but that building no longer exists.
1956 : State Central Museum
In the socialist period, history, natural environment, palaeontology and Mongolian art collections were moved into a renamed State Central Museum built in 1956.
1991 : National Museum of Mongolian History
Between the late 1980s and early 1990s, Mongolia began to transform toward democratic policies and an open-market economy. This led to the redevelopment of museum management and reopening of some earlier museums. In 1991, the National Museum of Mongolian History was established by merging the collections of two museums: the State Central Museum and Museum of Revolution.
In 2008, the National Museum of Mongolian History was elevated to the status of the National Museum of Mongolia. The present building was built in 1971, originally as the Museum of Revolution.
List of Exhibits
The museum consists of three storeys and 9 permanent and 1 temporary exhibition halls.
- First hall: Ancient Mongolia
- Second Hall: Xiongnu Empire and Ancient Kingdoms
- Third Hall: Traditional Clothing and Ornaments
- Fourth Hall: Mongolian Empire
- Fifth Hall: Traditional Culture
- Sixth Hall: Traditional Farming
- Seventh Hall: 17th-early 20th century
- Eighth Hall: Socialist Mongolia
- Ninth Hall: Democratic Mongolia
Opening Hours
- Summer (15 May – 15 Sep) 7.00am – 9.00pm
- Winter (16 Sep – 15 May) 9:00am – 6.00pm
- Closed on Mondays
Visited May 2023
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