National Museum of Mongolia – Mongols under Foreign Rule (1368-1911)

This post examines the period between 1368-1911, when the Mongols were under foreign rule, mainly by the Manchus.

Hall 7 of the National Museum of Mongolia covers the 17th century from the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) to early 20th century of the Bogd Khanate (1911-1924). The Museum did not have any exhibits for the Mongols during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) perhaps because they were the one that brought down the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). 

After the defeat by the Ming dynasty, the Mongols retreated back to the Mongolian Plateau and continued to rule for another 20 years period under the Northern Yuan 北元 (1368–1635), until the surrender of Tegüs Temür Khan (r. 1378-1388) to the invading Ming army. Afterward the Mongols returned to their nomadic states and continued guerrilla warfares along the borders of the Ming dynasty, until all were subjugated by the Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty 后金 (1616–1636) in 1635.

Rise of the Jurchens

Jurchen 女真 is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking people. They lived in northeastern China, also known as Manchuria, before the 18th century.

Later Jin Dynasty (1616-1636)

At the beginning of the 17th century the Manchu state existed on the border of eastern Mongolia. The Manchus forged alliances with certain Chinese and Mongol groups that aided their conquest of China. They grew in power and established the Qing dynasty with the conquest of Ming dynasty in 1644.

Duoyan Three Guards 朵颜三卫 – Mongol Mercenary of the Ming Dynasty

In 1388, the first Ming Emperor Hongwu ordered the annihilation of the remaining forces of the Northern Yuan and finally beat all of them at Buir nur, which ended officially the Northern Yuan dynasty. In 1389, Ming dynasty gave Borjigin princes (descended from Genghis Khan’s brothers) commands of the Duoyan Guard 朵颜卫, Fuyu Guard 福余卫 and Taining Guard 泰宁卫, collectively known as Duoyan Three Guards 朵颜三卫 .

Duoyan Three Guards was established from the remaining northern Mongol tribes to fight against the Döchin Mongol 鞑靼, the remnants of Northern Yuan tribes. They played a vital role in Jingnan Rebellion 靖难之役 that pushed the fourth son of Emperor Hongwu, Zhu Di 朱棣 (the third Ming Emperor Yongle) onto the throne.

In 1446-48 most of the guards fled and joined Dörvön Oirad 瓦剌 in the wake of Esen Tayisi 也先‘s invasions in 1449 which resulted in Tumu 土木堡之变. He declared himself as a Northern Yuan’s Khagan in 1953 and was assassinated in 1954. The Mongol tribes dispersed one more time until Dayan Khan “reunified” them.

However, the Fuyu Guard 福余卫 remained along the Nen and Onon rivers. Said to have been the descendants of Qasar, a brother of Genghis Khan, they became the direct ancestors of the Khorchin Mongols.

Khorchin Mongols

The Khorchin 科爾沁部 are a subgroup of the Mongols that speak the Khorchin dialect of Mongolian and predominantly live in northeastern Inner Mongolia of China.

Qing Dynasty’s Subjugation of the Mongols

In 1624, Nurhaci received the submission of Khorchins who were the first Mongol tribe that submitted to Later Jin and then Qing dynasty. The Khorchins were responsible for production of airaq (fermented mare’s milk) for Manchu emperors. The later emperors of the Manchu Qing dynasty rewarded the Khorchin nobles highly for this early loyalty.

Intermarriages of the Manchus and Mongols

The Aisin Gioro and Borjigit clans had a long history of political marriages. Notable Empresses of the Qing dynasty, such as Empress Xiaozhuangwen 孝莊文皇后 (1613–1688) and Empress Xiaohuizhang 孝惠章皇后 (1641–1717), were Khorchin-Borjigins. The Khorchins were further divided into two wings (north and south), each with three Banners.

Qing Mongolia Banner and Torture Devices

Silk and cloth (banner), Wood and iron (devices) | Qing dynasty (17th-20th century) | National Museum of Mongolia

This is an example of the Mongolia Banner of Border Yellow 镶黄旗 which was given to the broken up Khorchin tribes. Interestingly, it was displayed with some torture devices used by Qing administrators in the Mongolian areas.

About the Manchurian Eight Banners System 八旗制度

Banner system, the military organisation used by the Manchu tribes of Manchuria (now Northeast China) to conquer and control China in the 17th century. The Banner system was developed by the Manchu leader Nurhaci (1559–1626), who in 1601 organised his warriors into four companies of 300 men each. The companies were distinguished by banners of different colours—yellow, red, white, and blue. In 1615 four more banners were added, using the same colours bordered in red, the red banner being bordered in white. As the Manchu increased their conquests, the size of the companies grew until each came to number 7,500 men divided into five regiments, divided, in turn, into five companies.

All of Nurhachi’s followers, with the exception of a few imperial princes, were organized into this Banner system, which also served an administrative function. Taxation, conscription, and registration of the population were carried out through the banner organisation. The bannermen lived, farmed, and worked with their families during times of peace, and in times of war each banner contributed a certain number of fighting men.

As the Manchu began to conquer their Chinese and Mongol neighbours, they organized their captives into companies modeled after the banners. In 1635 eight Mongol banners were added to the Manchu system, and in 1642 eight Chinese banners were added. The new banners, which fought alongside the old, brought to 24 the total number of banner units. With these troops, the Manchu were able to conquer China and establish the Qing dynasty (1644–1911).

By 1635, the Qing have occupied Inner Mongolia (Khorchin) without much of a resistance; by 1697, Outer Mongolia (Khalka); by 1751, the Tibetan plateau (Khoshut); by 1760, Western Mongolia (Oirats and the Dzungars) fell and they established their dominance in what would resemble modern day China in terms of reach of the empire.

Court Robe And Belt 朝服

Silk, cloth, leather, gilt iron and beads, length 135 cm | Period of Qing dynasty (17th-18th century) | National Museum of Mongolia

Khalkha Mongols 喀爾喀

Khalkha Mongols (modern day Outer Mongolia) lost its independence and became a frontier region of the Manchu dynasty in 1697.

The Khalkha 喀爾喀 have been the largest subgroup of Mongol people in modern Mongolia since the 15th century. The Khalkha, together with Chahars, Ordos and Tumed, were directly ruled by Borjigin khans until the 20th century. The two original major Khalkha groups were ruled by the direct male line descendants of Dayan Khan, unlike the Oirats, who were ruled by Dzungar nobles or the Khorchins, who were ruled by Genghis Khan’s brother Qasar’s descendants. The Khalkha or Halh dialect is the standard written language of modern-day Mongolia.

About Dayan Khan, the Longest Reigning Khagan of the Unified Mongols

Dayan Khan (Mongolian: Даян Хаан; Mongol script: ᠳᠠᠶᠠᠨ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ; Chinese: 達延汗), born Batumöngke (Mongolian: Батмөнх; Chinese: 巴圖蒙克), (1472–1517) was a khagan of the Northern Yuan dynasty, reigning from 1480 to 1517. During his rule, he reunited the Mongols under Chinggisid supremacy. His reigning title, “Dayan”, means “the whole” or “Long lasting” in Mongolian language as he was the longest reigning khagan of the unified Mongols.

Consecration of Zasag, khshuuni veis Sündevdorj | Засаг, хошууны бэйс Сүндэвдорж (1783 — 1798)

Paper and silk | 1800-1833 | National Museum of Mongolia

Zasag, khshuuni veis Sündevdorj (1783-1798) was a governor of the Tüsheet khan aimag, and descendent of Abtai Sain Khan. This was a consecration written during the reigns of Qing Emperor Jiaqing (r. 1796-1820) or Emperor Daoguang (r. 1820-1850), I could not pinpoint when.

Kholsut Khanate 和碩特汗國

The Khoshut Khanate was a Mongol Oirat khanate based in the Tibetan Plateau from 1642 to 1717. Based in modern Qinghai, it was founded by Güshi Khan in 1642 after defeating the opponents of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism in Tibet. The 5th Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (1617–1682) established a civil administration known as Ganden Phodrang with the aid of Güshi Khan.

The role of the khanate in the affairs of Tibet has been subject to various interpretations. Some sources claim that the Khoshut did not interfere in Tibetan affairs and had a priest and patron relationship between the Khan and Dalai Lama while others claim that Güshi appointed a minister, Sonam Rapten, as de facto administrator of civil affairs while the Dalai Lama was only responsible for religious matters.

In the last years of the khanate, Lha-bzang Khan (d. 1717) murdered the Tibetan regent Desi Sangye Gyatso (1653–1705) and deposed the 6th Dalai Lama Tsangyang Gyatso in favour of a pretender Dalai Lama Ngawang Yeshey Gyatso.

The Khoshut Khanate was ended in 1717 when the Dzungar prince Tseren Dondup invaded Tibet, killed Lha-bzang Khan. However, they soon began to loot, rape and kill throughout Lhasa, destroying Tibetan goodwill towards them. Emperor Kangxi intervened, drove Dzungars out in 1720 and installed the 7th Dalai Lama Kelzang Gyatso.

About the 7th Dalai Lama Kelzang Gyatso

A monk at Litang monastery, spontaneously channeling the Nechung Oracle, identified Kelzang Gyatso as the reincarnation of Tsangyang Gyatso. Since this presented a contradiction of Lha-bzang Khan’s Dalai Lama, it was a controversial matter and potentially dangerous to the child. Subsequently, the Tibetan leader of a delegation from Lhasa covertly confirmed that the child was Tsangyang Gyatso’s reincarnation. The child was quietly taken into Litang monastery for protection and training. In 1715, the Kangxi Emperor sponsored Kelzang Gyatso’s entrance into Kumbum Monastery. This entrance was marked by formal ceremonies due to a Dalai Lama and thus signified a public challenge to Lha-bzang Khan’s Dalai Lama. He was ordained by Ngawang Lobsang Tenpai Gyaltsen.

A second and larger expedition sent by the Kangxi Emperor, together with Tibetan forces under Polhane of Tsang and Gangchenney, the governor of Western Tibet, expelled the Dzungars from Tibet in 1720. They brought Kelzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and he was enthroned as the seventh Dalai Lama in the Potala Palace.

Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor (Mongolian Version)

Paper, printed | Qing dynasty (17th-20th century) | National Museum of Mongolia

In 1670, when Qing Emperor Kangxi (left) was sixteen years old, he issued the Sacred Edict 聖諭 consisting of sixteen maxims, each seven characters long, to instruct the average citizen in the basic principles of Confucian orthodoxy. They were to be publicly posted in every town and village, then read aloud two times each month. Since they were written in terse formal classical Chinese, a local scholar was required to explicate them using the local dialect of the spoken language. This practice continued into the 20th century.

Dzungar Khanate – The Biggest Prick on Qing’s Back 准葛爾汗國 芒刺在背

The Dzungar Khanate was an Inner Asian khanate of Oirat Mongol origin. At its greatest extent, it covered an area from southern Siberia in the north to present-day Kyrgyzstan in the south, and from the Great Wall of China in the east to present-day Kazakhstan in the west. The core of the Dzungar Khanate is today part of northern Xinjiang, also called Dzungaria.

About the Oirats, and why they hated the Khalkha

The Oirats were originally from the area of Tuva during the early 13th century. Their leader, Quduqa Bäki, submitted to Genghis Khan in 1208 and his house intermarried with all four branches of the Genghisid line. During the Toluid Civil War, the Four Oirats (Choros, Torghut, Dörbet, and Khoid) sided with Ariq Böke (remember him?) and therefore never accepted Kublaid rule. After the Yuan dynasty’s collapse, the Oirats supported the Ariq Bökid Jorightu Khan Yesüder (r. 1388-1391) in seizing the Northern Yuan throne. The Oirats held sway over the Northern Yuan khans until the death of Esen Taishi in 1455, after which they migrated west due to Khalkha Mongol aggression. In 1486, the Oirats became embroiled in a succession dispute which gave Dayan Khan the opportunity to attack them. In the latter half of the 16th century, the Oirats lost more territory to the Tumed.

Dzungar-Qing Wars

First Dzungar–Qing War (1687-1697) in Outer Mongolia

The First Dzungar–Qing War was a military conflict fought from 1687 to 1697 between the Dzungar Khanate and an alliance of the Qing dynasty and the northern Khalkhas.

In 1688, the Dzungar chief, Galdan Boshugtu Khan, attacked the Khalkha from the west and invaded their territory. The Khalkha royal families and the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu crossed the Gobi Desert and sought help from the Qing Empire in return for submission to Qing authority. In 1690, the Dzungars and Qing forces clashed at the Battle of Ulan Butung in Inner Mongolia, in which the Qing eventually emerged as the victor.

In 1696 and 1697 the Kangxi Emperor personally led campaigns against the Dzungars in the early Dzungar–Qing War. The western section of the Qing army defeated Galdan’s forces at the Battle of Jao Modo and Galdan died of the plague in the following year.

Stele of Toono Mountain

Stone | 35th Year of Kangxi (1696) | National Museum of Mongolia

In 1696 and 1697, Kangxi Emperor personally led campaigns against the Dzungars in the First Dzungar–Qing War. In 1696, Emperor Kangxi had won a battle against Galdan Boshigt Khan and created the stele to memorialise his victory. Kalhka Khanate subjugated to the Qing dynasty, even though the enemies were the Dzungar, which brought Outer Mongolia under Qing control.

This stele was located at Toono Mountain in Dashbalbar sum of Khentii province, and in early 1960 it was transferred to the State Central Museum.  

Second Dzungar-Qing War (1720) in Tibet

The Dzungar Khanate, a confederation of Oirat tribes based in parts of what is now Xinjiang, continued to threaten the Qing Empire and invaded Tibet in 1717. They took control of Lhasa with a 6,000 strong army and killed Lha-bzang Khan. The Dzungars held on to the city for three years and at the Battle of the Salween River defeated a Qing army sent to the region in 1718. The Qing did not take control of Lhasa until 1720, when the Kangxi Emperor sent a larger expedition force there to defeat the Dzungars.

As a result, Tibet was officially under Qing rule, and the appointment of the Dalai Lama now fell under the authority of a religious council appointed by the Qing dynasty.

Third Dzungar-Qing War (1723-1732) in Qinghai

In 1723, Emperor Kangxi’s successor, Emperor Yongzheng 雍正 (r. 1722-1735), sent an army of 230,000 led by Nian Gengyao 年羹堯 to quell a Dzungar uprising in Qinghai on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Due to geography, the Qing army (although superior in numbers) was at first unable to engage their more mobile enemy. Eventually, they met the Dzungars and defeated them. This campaign cost the treasury at least eight million silver taels. Later in Yongzheng’s reign, he sent a small army of 10,000 to fight the Dzungars again. However, that army was annihilated near the Khoton Lake in 1731 and the Qing Empire once again faced the danger of losing control of Mongolia. A Khalkha ally of the Qing Empire would finally defeat the Dzungars a year later in 1732 near the Erdene Zuu Monastery (modern day Karakorum) in Mongolia. The Qing then made peace with the Dzungar Khanate and decided the border between them.

Under the advice of Nian Gengyao, Qinghai was subjugated into the Qing dynasty under the administration of Gansu.

Final Dzungar-Qing War (1755-1758) in Xinjiang

In 1752, Dawachi and the Khoit-Oirat prince Amursana competed for the title of Khan of the Dzungars. Amursana suffered several defeats at the hands of Dawachi and was thus forced to flee with his small army to the protection of the Qing imperial court. The Yongzheng Emperor’s successor, the Qianlong Emperor, pledged his support to Amursana, who recognized Qing authority; among those who supported Amursana and the Chinese were the Khoja brothers Burhān al-Dīn [zh] and Khwāja-i Jahān [zh].[35] In 1755, Qianlong sent the Manchu general Zhaohui, who was aided by Amursana, Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān, to lead a campaign against the Dzungars. After several skirmishes and small scale battles along the Ili River, the Qing army, led by Zhaohui, approached Ili (Gulja) and forced Dawachi to surrender. Qianlong appointed Amursana as the Khan of Khoid and one of four equal khans – much to the displeasure of Amursana, who wanted to be the Khan of the Dzungars.

Amursana now rallied the majority of the remaining Oirats to rebel against Qing authority. In 1758, General Zhaohui defeated the Dzungars in two battles: the Battle of Oroi-Jalatu and the Battle of Khurungui. In the first battle, Zhaohui attacked Amursana’s camp at night; Amursana was able to fight on until Zhaohui received enough reinforcements to drive him away. Between the battles of Oroi-Jalatu and Khurungui, the Chinese under Prince Cabdan-jab defeated Amursana at the Battle of Khorgos (known in the Qianlong engravings as the “Victory of Khorgos”). At Mount Khurungui, Zhaohui defeated Amursana in a night attack on his camp after crossing a river and drove him back. Afterwards, Khojis of Us-Turfan submitted to the Qing Empire. After all of these battles, Amursana fled to Russia (where he died) while Chingünjav fled north to Darkhad but was captured at Wang Tolgoi and executed in Beijing.

As a consequence, Xinjiang was included into the political realm of the Qing Dynasty for the first time, and Dzungar Khanate was destroyed.

Commemorative Seal for Victory at Dzungar-Qing War

Gilded steel, 9 x 4.7 x 4.7 cm | Qing dynasty (17th-20th century) | National Museum of Mongolia

The Genocide of Dzungaria

The Dzungar genocide occurred because the Qing Empire wished to crush resistance to its rule. In 1755, the Qing Empire conquered the Dzungar Khanate in Ili with the help of Amursana. Soon afterward, Amursana launched his revolt. After Amursana’s revolt, the Qing Emperor Qianlong viewed the Dzungar people as a problem which needed to be eliminated. Dzungars in Dzungaria was decimated (estimated to around 79% of total population), making this one of the most horrible genocides in the history of mankind. The Dzungars remaining in Xinjiang were also renamed Oolods. 

Qing Dynasty Rule Over Mongols

The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the “outer” non-Han Chinese like the Inner Mongols, Eastern Mongols, Oirat Mongols, and Tibetans together with the “inner” Han Chinese, into “one family” united in the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family.

Commerce and Culture in Qing Mongolia

The Qing dynasty rule and the success of its imperial consolidation was less a stationary monologue of Manchu-Buddhist imperial rule than an on-going fragmented discursive practice. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Chinese merchants were introduced into Mongolia and became a large factor in its social and economic life. From the beginning, the Qing government had restricted Chinese merchant trade in Mongolia and Russia as well.

Qing Mongolia Wooden Trade Certificates

Wood | Qing dynasty (17th-20th century) | National Museum of Mongolia

The Qing government provided trade tokens or approval documents for merchants which allowed them to trade. These trade certificates, kind of Business Registration Certificate, are oblong shapes with square base, with one wooden point with four carved sides with men’s faces, and hanging green silk. Three sides of the wood have writing in Mongolian, Tibetan and Chinese respectively. The Mongolian script says that it is a mark of trade that belongs to Russian merchants trading to the people of Khotont sum.

Coins and Currencies Used in Qing Mongolia

Paper, copper, silver | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia

As trade flourished, money from different countries and regions, including Russian paper money, Mexican silver coins, Qing coins and silver ingots, Republic Chinese Yuan silver coin, etc. Sichuan tea brick that was used extensively to make the Mongolian milk tea drink called suutei tsai, was also used as a form of currency in exchange for the precious goods. And barter trade was prevalent as the society at the turn of the 20th century was mainly agrarian.

Items Place in the North – the Most Honourable Position in a Ger House

Misc. | 20th century | National Museum of Mongolia

Some of the good traded were on display, and the most prominent would be placed at the most prominent position (in the northern end) of the ger so that those entering the ger would be able to see them. These were mostly items that were not manufactured in Mongolia and brought by the traders in exchange for local produce like cattle, fur and animal skins. And they would usually fetch a handsome price because logistics back then were rather primitive.

These items include Western style clock made in Japan, incense censers and burners, portrait or photo of 8th Bogd Khan, Dharma protector and warrior god Begtse, Chinese made cloisonné flask in Mongol style, and Chinese porcelain.

Cloths from Russian Merchants with Religious Auspicious Images in Old Mongol Scripts

Cloth | Early 20th century | National Museum of Mongolia

The Chinese were not the only ones trading with the Mongolians. Entrepreneurial Russians were crossing the Amur River bringing their wares to be sold. What’s interesting about these blessing cloths were the incorporation of the insignias of the companies producing them.

Government Structure

Qing Mongolian Official’s Hat, Sabre, Whip, Snuff Bottle and Ring

Velvet, feather, felt (hat); steel, wood (sabre); jade, stone, silver (snuff bottles) | Qing dynasty (20th century) | National Museum of Mongolia

The official hat belonged to Manlaibaatar Damdinsüren; the sabre and whip belonged to Khatanbaatar Magsarjav; the snuff bottle and ring belongs to Khatanbaatar Magsarjav. The owners of these artefacts were all pivotal in playing a part on the road to independence of Mongolia.

About Manlaibaatar Damdinsüren and Khatanbaatar Magsarjav

Manlaibaatar Damdinsüren (1871-1921) was a military commander, Pan-Mongolist and diplomat who led Mongolia’s struggle for independence in 1911.

He was arrested by Chinese occupation authorities in the autumn of 1920. In prison, he was tortured by Chinese authorities for 107 days, but never kneeled down to the Chinese, and in fact died standing up in prison in Niislel Khüree in January 1921. Manlaibaatar Damdinsüren street in Ulaanbaatar is named in his honour.

Khatanbaatar Magsarjav (1877-1927) was a Mongolian general and a leading figure in Mongolia’s struggle for independence. His contingent of 800 elite Mongol soldiers fought White Russian and Chinese forces over 30 times between 1912 and 1921, without a single defeat. He served as acting prime minister from February 15, 1921 to March 13, 1921, under Roman Ungern von Sternberg’s puppet regime and then later as minister of the army in the 1920s. He received the title Ardyn (Ардын) in 1924.

There were two classes of vassals: the khamjlaga, who under Qing law were serfs for life of the local nobility and civil administrators; and the shavi, the vassals of the monastery estates. Trade in essentials like tea, rice, and tobacco was in the hands of Chinese companies, which willingly extended credit at high interest rates. The currency consisted of units of livestock, as well as tea bricks, small silver ingots, and some foreign coins.

When the officials and nobility got into debt, they would increase their taxes in kind on the population. As a result, many Mongols were impoverished and occasionally rebellious, despite the risk of terrible punishment at the hands of the Qing authorities, who had built fortified administrative centres and garrison towns like Khovd and Uliastai to control Mongolia’s regions.

Wooden Chest For Holding A Prisoner Called Muglen МУГЛЭН

Wood | Qing dynasty (17th-20th century) | National Museum of Mongolia

A “Muglen” was used as a torture device to imprison serious criminals. It was like an iron-banded chest with two big locks and a ventilation hole. When the jails were full, some wooden chests were used outside. Prisoners in the “Muglen” would only leave for their execution or if they died.

Sinofication of the Mongol Race

Realising this situation, some people were devising suitable measures to change the dark and crude nature of the race.

In 1906, the Qing dynasty extended the policy of Sinofication from Inner Mongolia to Outer Mongolia. By encouraging Chinese men to settle in Mongolian territory and marry Mongolian women, the Qing government hoped to impose the Chinese lifestyle and culture on Mongolians. This policy increased Mongolians’ resistance to Qing rule, and as the Qing dynasty collapsed in China, the Mongolian princes and the public declared their independence from the Qing’s and thereafter, from the Chinese.

Fight for Freedom from Qing Dynasty

The Mongols were already under the rule of the Qing dynasty for more than 200 years by the turn of the 20th century. At that time, the Mongols were in a very difficult social and economic situation, lagging behind the world development standards by several hundred years.

National Liberation Revolution of 1911

The first major turning point in the historical destiny of Mongolians in the last (20th) century was the National Liberation Revolution of 1911.

Teacher’s Seal of Jalkhanz Khutagt Sodnomyn Damdinbazar

Silver | Bodg Khanate (1915) | National Museum of Mongolia

About Jalkhanz Khutagt Sodnomyn Damdinbazar (1874-1923)

The Jalkhanz Khutagt Sodnomyn Damdinbazar (1874–1923) was a high Buddhist incarnation (hence the title Jalkhanz Khutagt) from northwestern Mongolia who played a prominent role in the country’s independence movement in 1911–1912. He served as Prime Minister of Mongolia twice; first in 1921 as part of the Bogd Khan puppet government established by Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, and again from 1922 to 1923 under the revolutionary government of the Mongolian People’s Party.

Damdinbazar supported Mongolian independence as early as 1900 during the military rebellion in Uliastai. From 1911 to 1912 he publicly campaigned for Mongolia’s independence from Chinese rule. He was appointed Minister for the Pacification of the Western Border Areas during the Bogd Khanate and together with Khatanbaatar Magsarjav, Manlaibaatar Damdinsüren, Togtokh Taij, and Ja Lama took part in the liberation of Khovd. In recognition of his leadership he was awarded the honourable title Samadi Nomun Khan in 1912.

Machine Gun “Maksim”

Iron, 69 x 153 x 63 cm | 1914

In the summer of 1911, during the inauguration of the 8th Bogd Javzandamba nobles, the Mongolian kings and high priests, who decided to get rid of the Manchurian rule, sent a delegation led by Chin Van Khandorj to Russia. Van Khanddorj, Chagdarjav, and monk Tserenchimed held a secret meeting on Bogd Mountain, and with the help of Russia, Mongolians came up with a proposal to separate from Manchuria and become an independent country.

Bogd Khanate (1911-1924)

By 1911, when the Chinese Revolution broke out, unrest was widespread in Mongolia. In December the Manchu amban (high officials) was ordered to leave, Bogdo Jivzundamba Khutugtu (1870-1924) was proclaimed the Bogd Khan (“Holy King”), and he declared the independence of Mongolia—Inner Mongolia and Tannu Tuva (Tyva), as well as Outer Mongolia.

Flags of the Bogd Khanate

Silk, Cloth | Bogd Khanate (1911-1924) | National Museum of Mongolia

Also at that time, the Bogd Khan’s capital, Ikh Khüree (“Great Monastery”), in modern day Ulaanbatar, was renamed Niislel Khüree (“Capital Monastery”). The Qing emperor abdicated in 1912, and the Republic of China was proclaimed. Also that year Russia signed a treaty with the Bogd Khan’s government that recognised Mongolia, although the interpretation of this recognition between the two parties differed: Mongolia considered itself independent of China, while Russia characterised Mongolia as being “autonomous.”

Different State and Religious Seals of the Bogd Khanate

Silver | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia

The Russian position was further underlined in 1913, when Russia and China issued a declaration stating that Mongolia was still under Chinese suzerainty. Mongolia objected, but this status was reinforced by a joint Russian-Chinese-Mongolian treaty in 1915, in which the Bogd Khan’s government was obliged to accept autonomy under Chinese suzerainty. As a result, the Bogd Khan was unable to unite Inner with Outer Mongolia, nor was he able to prevent Russia from colonising Tuva.

Silver Box And Cups From Tsarist Russia to Prince Namnansüren

Silver and enamel | Bogd Khanate (1913) | National Museum of Mongolia

Tögs-Ochiryn Namnansüren (1878-1919) was a powerful hereditary prince[2] and prominent early 20th century Mongolian independence leader. He served as the first prime minister of Mongolia under the Bogd Khan from 1912 until 1915, when the office of prime minister was abolished. He was subsequently appointed Minister of the Army.

About Tögs-Ochiryn Namnansüren (1878-1919)

Tögs-Ochiryn Namnansüren (Mongolian: Төгс-Очирын Намнансүрэн; Chinese: 那木囊蘇倫; Tibetan: རྣམ་སྣང་སྲུང་), who allegedly could trace his heritage directly back to Genghis Khan, was born in 1878 in present-day Uyanga district of Övörkhangai Province. In 1896 he became prince, or ‘khan’, of Sain Noyon Khan Province, one of the four Khalkh Mongol provinces established by the Qing dynasty. He married in 1900.

In 1911, Namnansüren persuaded Mongolia’s religious leader Bogd Khan to call a congress of Mongol princes and high-ranking lamas in Khüree to initiate independence from China. The Bogd Khan then dispatched him to Saint Petersburg in July 1911 as part of a delegation to seek Russian and West European support for Mongolian independence.

In June 1918, faced with increased threats from the Chinese who were demanding Mongolia renounce its Pan-Mongolia ambitions and sign a decree ‘voluntarily’ relinquishing autonomy, Namnansüren again traveled to Russia, this time to Irkutsk, to seek Russian assistance. There he met with two Bolshevik representatives in what is believed to be the first meeting between Soviet and Outer Mongolian officials. The Bolsheviks, preoccupied with the revolution and the ongoing civil war in Russia, failed to offer much in the way of assistance.

Not long after his return home, Namnansüren fell seriously ill and died sometime in April 1919. Many suspected he was assassinated by poisoning, along with many other figures involved in the revival of Mongolia’s independence who apparently died premature deaths. Shortly thereafter the Chinese warlord Xu Shuzheng occupied Niislel Khüree and installed the more pliable Gonchigjalzangiin Badamdorj as prime minister.

From November 1913 to January 1914 Namnansüren lead another delegation to St. Petersburg, this time to represent Mongolian interests during negotiations between Russia and China surrounding the tripartite Kyakhta treaty that would define the border between Russian Siberia and the Qing territories of Mongolia and Manchuria.

Supreme State Order of Mongolia Erdeniin Ochir (3rd Class)

Material: Gold coating, sapphire, mother of pearl, blue ribbon. Size: 11.5 cm in length, 5.5 cm in width, weighs 40 grams | Bogd Khanate (1911-1924) | National Museum of Mongolia

About the Supreme State Order of Mongolia Erdeniin Ochir 3rd Class

In the special set of rules established for the order, it states that the top class Erdeniin Ochir order has three classifications, with the first one being named after Chinggis Khaan, the second named after Abtai Sain Khaan, and the third named after the Undur Gegeen. For the first class of the order, pearl is embedded in the middle and the top of the order made of pure gold, alongside its yellow ribbon. The first classification has ‘the Erdeniin Ochir order of the Great Chinggis Khaan’ written on the back of it.

The second class has 4 classifications, with the order made with gold coating and silver and a red ribbon. A red colored precious stone is embedded in the middle of the cross section of the two ochir, while a transparent bead, sapphire, and lapis lazuli is at the top. With ‘Van class Erdeniin Ochir order of Mongolia’ written on the back, it was awarded to honorable ministers and ambassadors.

With 5 classifications, the third class Erdeniin Ochir order is made of copper and gold coating with a blue ribbon. An engraved bead, sapphire, and lapis lazuli is embedded in the order. From the three classes of the order, the 4th and 5th classifications of the third class Erdeniin Ochir order is being kept in the collection of the National Museum of Mongolia.

The 4th classification of the third class Erdeniin Ochir order has gold coating alongside lapis lazuli, mother of pearl, and a blue ribbon. Height 11.5 cm, width 5.5 cm, and weight 40 grams. With the lapis lazuli embedded in the cross section of the golden ochir, ‘4th class’ is written in Mongolian script on the back. The rule states that the order is presented to heads of international military.

As for the 5th classification, it also has gold coating as well as the precious stones and a blue ribbon. Although the lapis lazuli is embedded in the middle, this particular version of the order does not have any writing on the back.

Mongolian hopes for international recognition of its independence and support for a union between Inner and Outer Mongolia were ultimately dashed when the agreement re-confirmed the country’s official status as an autonomous region within China. While in Russia, Namnansüren attempted to contact ambassadors from several western countries (the United States, Great Britain, France, and Germany) and to organise a trip to Western Europe to gain international support for Mongolia’s independence but was prevented from doing so by Russian officials.

Equipments of Mongolian Soldier

Misc | Bogd Khanate (1911-1924) | National Museum of Mongolia

About Lavariin Sumiya (1834-1935)

Lavariin Sumiya (Mongolia: Лаварын Сумъяа) (1834-1935) was a tireless fighter for the national independence of Mongolia, a staunch fighter against Manchurian and Chinese oppression, and a skilled military general.

In 1912, Sumiya came to Mongolia in Khiagta after a long journey by water and railway through Russia with 271 of his subjects. Bogd Khan awarded him the status of a Duke, made the Tzahar people of Ili, who had migrated with Sumyya, a special province.

The illustrious hero devoted himself to the cause of the People’s Revolution from the beginning, and participated in the battle for the liberation of Hiagt as a lieutenant general of the People’s Revolution Army. Subsequently, in 1921, he was appointed as the first member of the Central Military Commission, the deputy general of the special military unit of the Western Road, and led the battle for the liberation of Hiagt and the Western Road. The soldiers led by him fiercely fought for the independence of Mongolia and made heroic merits, but were terribly repressed in the political scandals of the 1930s.

Treaty of Khyata (1915)

In 1915, Treaty of Khyata was signed between Tsarist Russia, Nationalist China and Bogd Khanate Mongolia, forcing Mongolia to accept the status of “autonomy under China”.  

Honours and Envoy Pass of Tsarist Russia

Silver, enamel | Bogd Khanate (1911-1924) | National Museum of Mongolia

From left: Russian honorific medal belonging to Minister of Justice Erdenejonon Van Shirnendamdin (he is one of the signee of the Treaty of Khyata), Envoy Messenger Pass of Uliastai Consulate of Tsarist Russia, High Order of Saint Stanislaus awarded by Tsarist Russia to Mongolian political aristocrats.

Details of Treaty of Khyata (1915)

Treaty concluded by Mongolia, Russia and China on 23 May 1915, which ended Mongolia’s hopes of unification and independence. The Mongols had wanted complete independence for unified Outer Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. The Russians wanted broad autonomy for Outer Mongolia under Chinese suzerainty, and did not want to discuss Inner Mongolia. China wanted to reduce the status of Mongolia to that of a Chinese province.

The Mongol delegation was headed by Deputy Minister of Justice Erdenejonon Van Shirnendamdin and Minister of Finance Tüsheet Chin Van Chagdarjav. The negotiations lasted eight months. In the end the Bogd Khan government had to accept autonomy.

Article 2 of the treaty said: “Outer Mongolia agrees to recognise the suzerainty of China. Russia and China agree to recognise that autonomous Outer Mongolia is part of the territory of China.”

Article 3 said: “Autonomous Mongolia does not have the right to form contacts with foreign countries and states in the world, or to conclude international treaties.”

The treaty also legalised Chinese traders’ activities in Outer Mongolia, and they quickly became the main suppliers and buyers of goods.

The Last King of Mongolia, Bogdo Jivzundamba Khutugtu (1870-1924) and Queen Dondogdulam (1874-1923)

Wax figures | Year unknown | Artist M. Chimeddorj

Neither the Romanovs (Tsarist Russia) or the Chinese Republic acknowledged Bogd Khan or his claims of independence. Both empires still had different agendas on Mongolian sovereignty , especially with Japan’s increasing interest in the area as well. Neither wanted a buffer state, but to expand into the Mongolian territory.

End of Mongolian Autonomy by Republic of China President Yuan Shikai

The Chinese took advantage of the 1917 Communist Revolution which put Russia in turmoil to invade and cruelly subjugate the Mongolians. By 1919, Chinese troops occupied Khüree (present day Ulaanbaatar) and put an end to the autonomous status. At that time the communist revolution was taking Russia by storm.

Knife Set and Pouch of Minister of Religion and State, and Shanzav of Bogd Khan, Gonchigjalzangiin Badamdorj (1850-1921)

Horn, bone and hide | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia

From 1900 to 1911, G. Badamdorj served as an administrator, or Erdene Shanzav of the Bogd Gegeen‘s estates. He was a close confidant, advisor, and tutor to the Khalkha spiritual leader, Jebtsundamba Khutuktu (later to become the Bogd Khan) who, in 1895 dispatched him to St. Petersburg as the first Mongolian envoy to meet with the newly enthroned Czar Nicholas II and probe Russian willingness to support Mongolian aspirations for independence from Manchu rule.

He is most remembered in Mongolia for caving to Qing threats and agreeing to Mongolia’s “voluntary” relinquishment of independence from Chinese rule in 1919. Badamdorj was branded a coward for not standing up to foreign threats and he soon became the victim of a rumor campaign designed to taint his reputation. Ordinary people and even children would regularly insult him. Disgraced, Badamdorj fled to the countryside and died a short while later.

For the continuing episode of the road to independence for the Mongolia state, read my earlier post “From Communism to Democracy“.

About National Museum of Mongolia

National Museum of Mongolia is an ideal place for those who are eager to discover the origins of Mongolian history, culture and tradition. It showcases over 6,000 pieces artefacts dated from pre-historic time to present-day Mongolia. 

History of the Museum

In 2008, the National Museum of Mongolian History was elevated to the status of the National Museum of Mongolia. The present building was built in 1971, originally as the Museum of Revolution.

List of Exhibits

The museum consists of three storeys and 9 permanent and 1 temporary exhibition halls.

• First hall: Ancient Mongolia
• Second Hall: Xiongnu Empire and Ancient Kingdoms
• Third Hall: Traditional Clothing and Ornaments
• Fourth Hall: Mongolian Empire
• Fifth Hall: Traditional Culture
• Sixth Hall: Traditional Farming
• Seventh Hall: 17th-early 20th century
• Eighth Hall: Socialist Mongolia
• Ninth Hall: Democratic Mongolia

Opening Hours

• Summer (15 May – 15 Sep) 7.00am – 9.00pm
• Winter (16 Sep – 15 May) 9:00am – 6.00pm
• Closed on Mondays

Visited May 2023