Mongolians have formed a pattern of nomadic culture due to many factors such as agriculture, natural and climatic features, ways of living in the human zone, routines, and customs. The traditional culture of nomadic Mongols has an incredibly rich heritage.
Hall 5 of the National Museum of Mongolia focuses on the traditional cultures of Mongolia. You can see the intellectual cultural monuments of the nomads, the people’s music, religion, writing, traditional printing technology, samples of handicrafts, games and folk festivals.
Table of Contents
If Music is the Fruit of Love….
Music is an integral part of Mongolian culture. The music of Mongolia is also rich with varieties related to the different ethnic groups of the country. Among the unique contributions of Mongolia to the world’s musical culture are the long songs (urtyn duu), overtone singing (khoomei) and Morin Khuur, the horse-headed fiddle.
The Morin Khuur – Horse-head Fiddle
The Morin Khuur is the most important musical instrument of the Mongolian people, and is considered a symbol of the Mongolian Nation. The Morin Khuur is Mongolian bowed stringed instrument. The full classical name for the morin khuur is meaning fiddle with horse’s head. It produces a sound which is poetically described as expansive and unrestrained, like a wild horse neighing, or like a breeze in the grasslands. The instrument is respected because the horse is the most honoured and spiritual animal among the five traditional domesticated animals. Mongols believed its produces magical sounds to touch everyone’s heart.
The Morin Khuur is one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity identified by UNESCO. The Morin Khuur has become more than just a music instrument but also part of the daily life, customs and rituals, and immensely interwoven with the Mongolian intellectual development.
Origin of the Morin Khuur
The morin khuur was born on the banks of the Onon, where the most famous morin khuur players in Mongolia are said to come from. The musical instrument is crowned with a magnificent legend of which there are many versions, but this is the most probable version.
A poor breeder had for all good a thin red horse which was for him an invaluable friend. One day, he discovered him lying, lifeless, near his ger. Inconsolable, he began to make a khuuchir with his friend’s bones, tendons and hair, fixed the horse’s head to the handle, then, distraught with pain, leaned his own head against it in order to unite himself spiritually with his deceased friend. The bow then came to life and, gently brushing the strings, made the horse’s head shiver, which began to emit nervous whinnies. Thus was born a melody which spread over the steppe through the autumn grass, caressing gently the young man and his horse.
Here’s a wonderful anime about this story. https://www.luaoliu.work/the-tale-of-morin-khuur
Ancient Form Of The Morin Khuur
Morin khuur vary kinds form depending on region. In earlier times, carvings of various heads were used on fiddles named scoop or ladle-shaped fiddles, shanagan khuur. Although they are considered to be the ancient or original forms of the morin khuur, there are no ladle-shaped fiddles with horse heads to be seen. Ladle-shaped fiddles with heads of crocodiles, dragons, and lions passed down through five generations can still be found in some regions of Mongolia. Another ancient fiddle with a bow is Ikel which is also considered to be the ancestor of Morin khuur. Traditionally, it didn’t have any animal head but had some other symbols such as Chandmani, the wishing jewel. The Buriads were using one of the rare types of Morin khuur ‘tsuuh khuur’ or ‘davsgan khuur’. The tsuuh khuur has only one string and a simple, ancient design. The body of the khuur is made from a cow bladder or the crusted scum of a newly born calf. The tsuuh khuur is one of the types of khuur played by ancient and nomadic people in Mongolia. However it is completely forgotten nowadays.
Details of the Construction of a Morin Khurr
All Morin Khuurs are comparatively simply made, handy and easily carried by their owners on their wanderings over the steppe however, their construction may vary.
There are eight parts in the construction of the horse-headed fiddle which are:
- A horse head
- Two tuning pegs
- An upper bridge
- A wooden stick
- Lower and upper sound-boxes
- Fastening
- A lower bridge
- Bow
Mongolian Plucked Zither “Yatga”
Yatga is a traditional plucked zither of Mongolia. Yatga may vary widely in size, tuning, and number of bridges and strings; one end of the yatga is placed on the knees of the performer, the other end will be on the floor or will be put on a stand. Some performers prefer to place the yatga on two stands like a Chinese guzheng.
The body is a long wooden box, one end of which is angled downward. The performer plucks the strings with the fingernails of the right hand; the left hand is used to put pressure on the strings, varying the note. The left hand can also be used to play the bass strings without plectrums (picks). Depending on style the higher strings are picked by fingers or by picks. Usually the strings are tuned pentatonic. The most common tune is C D E G A or different tunes.
Shudraga Khagjim шударга хагжим
Shanz, also called Shudraga, is a plucked three string instrument, widespread across Asia. In Okinawa of Japan known as sanshin, in China as sanxian, in Vietnam as đàn tam.
It has been suggested that sanxian, a form of spike lute, may have its origin in the Middle East, and older forms of spike lute were also found in ancient Egypt; it may have been re-introduced into China together with other instruments such as huqin by the Mongols during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), however, an image of a sanxian-like instrument was found in a stone sculpture dating from the Southern Song period (1217–79).
The shudraga has a dry, somewhat percussive tone and loud volume similar to the banjo. It has a long fretless fingerboard, and the body is traditionally made from snake skin stretched over a rounded rectangular resonator.
Mongolian String INstrument “Khuuchir”
Huqin 胡琴 are believed to have come from the nomadic Hu 胡 people, who lived on the extremities of ancient Chinese kingdoms, possibly descending from an instrument called the Xiqin 奚琴, originally played by the Xi tribe. Like the people of China, Mongolian people also have cultural and ethnic heritage of the ancient Hu nomads, and the Mongol version of the xiqin, known as the khuuchir, is testament to this shared heritage.
The khuuchir has a small, cylindrical, square or cup-like resonator made of bamboo, wood or copper, covered with a snake skin and open at the bottom.
The neck is inserted in the body of the instrument. It is tuned in the interval of a fifth and is small or middle sized. It usually has four silk strings, of which the first and the third are accorded in unison, whereas the second and fourth are tuned in the upper fifth. The bow is coated with horsetail hair and inseparably interlaced with the string-pairs; in Chinese this is called sihu 四胡. The smaller instruments have only two strings and are called erhu 二胡 that is “two” in Chinese.
Mongolian Lute “Tovshuur”
Tovshuur, also known as Topshur, a beautiful and traditional musical instrument played by the Western Mongolian (Oirats) tribes, including the Altai Urianghais, Altais, Tuvans, and Khalkha peoples. This Tovshuur is a testament to the rich cultural heritage of the Mongolian people and holds significant historical value. Crafted with meticulous attention to detail, it features a sturdy wooden body, a long neck, and two or three strings, producing a unique and enchanting sound.
The Tovshuur is more than just an instrument; it is a cultural symbol that accompanied storytellers, singing, and dancing performances in the Western Mongolian traditions. According to historical records, the Mongols even played it before battles, highlighting its significance in their history.
Mongolian Flute “Limbe”
The Limbe лимбэ is a concert flute with six finger holes from Mongolian folk music, which belongs to the nomadic pastoral culture and is usually played with circular breathing by experienced players. The continuous playing of the flute to accompany “long songs” (urtyn duu) lasting up to 25 minutes was added to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists in urgent need of preservation in 2011. Like most other Mongolian musical instruments, the limbe is traditionally only allowed to be played by men. The origin of the East Asian flutes such as the limbe and the related dizi in China could be traced back to the 1st millennium BC.
Urtyn Duu (Long Song)
For the Mongolians, “Long Song” evokes the vast drawn out steppes. Its nostalgic tendencies generate a preference for slow tempos, long melodic lines, wide pitch intervals and the absence of measured rhythm. The scale used is a (five note) pentatonic major or minor scale with no semi tones. Long songs are sung by women and men and are usually accompanied by the Morin Khuur (Horse Head Fiddle) or sometimes the Limbe (Transverse Flute).
The basic melody of the long song is embellished by improvisations using trills, glissandos and glottal style yodelling effects. The words are treated in a melismatic way with nonsense syllables and vowels worked in to add to the overall effect. However there are strict rules concerning vowel harmony. Each singer may have a favourite melody in which he or she will sing the words for a number of different long songs.
Some of the long songs are heard in context and form part of a ritual event such as introductory songs to the family or public ceremonies. Some are to accompany traditional activities such as Nadaam (festival/sports events) or animal husbandry. Long song can also be non contextual and can be performed as entertainment after the formal ritual of festivals, whilst riding or simply as a means of self-expression.
In Gods We Trust
The vast steppes of Central Asia cradled a civilisation that held a rich tapestry of beliefs and practices. The Mongols were highly tolerant of most religions during the early Mongol Empire, and typically sponsored several at the same time. At the time of Genghis Khan in the 13th century, virtually every religion had found converts, from Buddhism to Eastern Christianity and Manichaeanism to Islam. To avoid strife, Genghis Khan set up an institution that ensured complete religious freedom, though he himself was a Tengrist. Under his administration, all religious leaders were exempt from taxation, and from public service. Mongol emperors were known for organizing competitions of religious debates among clerics, and these would draw large audiences.
Buu (Shamanism)
Contrary to what most people believe, shamanism is not considered to be a religion. It is deemed a common ancient ritual. Mongolian classics, such as The Secret History of the Mongols, provide details about male and female shamans serving as exorcists, healers, rainmakers, necromancy, soothsayers, and officials. Shamanic practices continue in present-day Mongolian culture.
Shamanism is not entirely unique to Mongolia. It has been practiced in the central regions of Asia since ancient times by numerous tribes. Each tribe has its own traditions and customs that overlap with each other while mostly being different in their ornament, clothing, or even instruments used in the ritual.
Shaman’s Costume
Cloth, silk, metal, wood, eagle’s feather | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia
The Mongols were animists (people who believed that non-human entities contained souls) and shamanists (spiritual healers). They thought that medicine shamans had the power to communicate with the gods, heal the ill, and predict the future.
Tengrism
Genghis Khan, the founder and Great Khagan of the Mongol Empire, and his followers, were believers of Tengrism. Often mistaken to be shamanism because of misinformation by the popular media, Tengrism included the ideas of animism, shamanism and ancestor worship. The original Great Khans were thought to have received a mandate to rule the world from Tengri, the ruler of Heaven and the supreme Mongol deity. Like this letter from Güyük Khan to Pope Innocent IV, it started with the phrase, “Under the power of the Eternal Blue Sky (Tengri)…”.
The spiritual hierarchy in clan-based Mongolian society was complex. The highest group consisted of 99 tengri (55 of them benevolent or “white” and 44 terrifying or “black”), 77 natigai or “earth-mothers”, besides others. The tengri were called upon only by leaders and great shamans and were common to all the clans. After these, three groups of ancestral spirits dominated.
The “Lord-Spirits” were the souls of clan leaders to whom any member of a clan could appeal for physical or spiritual help. The “Protector-Spirits” included the souls of great shamans (ĵigari) and shamanesses (abĵiya). The “Guardian-Spirits” were made up of the souls of smaller shamans (böge) and shamanesses (idugan) and were associated with a specific locality (including mountains, rivers, etc.) in the clan’s territory.
Syncretism
Religious syncretism is the blending of religious belief systems into a new system, or the incorporation of other beliefs into an existing religious tradition. This can occur for many reasons, where religious traditions exist in proximity to each other, or when a culture is conquered and the conquerors bring their religious beliefs with them, but do not succeed in eradicating older beliefs and practices.
White Old Man
Wood, paint (Size. H.33 cm W 22.5 cm) | 19th-20th century | Darknan-uul province
Tsagaan Ubgen or “White Old Man” is the Mongolian guardian of life and longevity, one of the symbols of fertility and prosperity in the Buddhist pantheon. Tsagaan Ubgen originated in Mongolia and is an example of Shamanism influenced by Tibetan Buddhism.
Badamjunai
Clay, paint | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia
Indian saint Lovon Badamjunai aka Padmasambhava aka Guru Rinpoche (8th century) sanctified the first Tibetan Buddhist temple in the 8th century along with the introduction of the tsam dance. Padmasambhava was a Tantrist and a member of the Yogācāra sect and taught at Nalanda, a centre of Buddhist studies in India.
Tsagaan Ubgen has the same kindly bald old man with a white beard appearance in the Mongolian version of the Tsam dance. There, he appears alongside other masked characters representing other syncretic Buddhist gods such as Begze, Mahākāla, and the Garuda; and is one of the few characters in the dance who is able to speak.
About Tsam Dances
The tsam dance is a Buddhist ritual performed by dancers wearing elaborate costumes and masks. It was introduced to Mongolia in the eighth century, when the Indian saint Lovon Badamjunai sanctified the first Tibetan Buddhist temple. The tsam is a secret and subtle ritual, the meaning of which is often known only to those who perform it.
It’s one of the most important ritual of Tibetan Buddhism. Young lamas dance it, wearing costumes and masks that symbolise different apostles, devils, animals, or real persons. The dance principally stages characters of Buddhist legends and animals that symbolise good and bad influences. For example, the garuda and the lion (powerful beasts of air and earth), deer (symbol of beauty in the animal reign), or the crow (soothsayer).
The Mongolian tsam dances have an important artistical side. They include dances, musics and luxurious costumes, and have a didactic side since they represent a scenary or some persons from Buddhist philosophy. It’s also supposed to bring good fortune to people. In the 19th century, more than 500 among the 700 monasteries of Mongolia had their own vision of the dance.
In the 1930s, the Communist government in Mongolia banned the tsam, along with other religious displays. It has since been revived by a number of Mongolian artists, particularly Gankhuyag “Ganna” Natsag.
The costumes and masks used for tsam dances in the early 20th century have been kept in several museums. The most famous of them is the Choijin-Lama Museum in Ulaanbaatar. The costumes have recently been used to make the tsam ceremony rise.
Tibetan Buddhism
Buddhism in the form of the Yellow Hat Buddhism or Lamaism making further inroads into Mongolia from the second half of the 16th century, and many Mongolians converted to Buddhism. But Mongolian Buddhism is different from Tibetan Buddhism as it incorporated Shamanism and Tengrism into the belief system and worship.
Mongolian Buddhism connected with Mongolian traditional lifestyle. Before in 1930 40% of male population was lamas (monks).
Gelug School of Buddhism
Avtai Khan (1554-1588) spread the teachings of the Yellow Hat or Gelug School of Buddhism in Mongolia with the establishment of Erdene Zuu Monatery. His grandson Zanabazar from his son Gombodorj was declared as the leader of the Mongolian religion and the reincarnation of Taranatha. When he was proclaimed as the first Bogd Javzandamba, the Qing Dynasty had much to do with the affair.
About Taranatha
Tāranātha (1575–1634) was a Lama of the Jonang school of Tibetan Buddhism. He is widely considered its most remarkable scholar and exponent.
Taranatha was born in Tibet, and it is believed that his birthday coincided with Padmasambhava’s. Originally named Kun-dga’-snying-po, which is the Sanskrit equivalent of Anandagarbha, he chose the name Taranatha instead. This was to show his appreciation for Sanskrit learning, which had become less common in Tibet, and to honour his Indian teacher, Buddhaguptanatha.
His exceptional qualities are said to have been recognised by others at a young age, as is often the case with great masters. He studied under such masters as Je Draktopa, Yeshe Wangpo, Kunga Tashi and Jampa Lhundrup, although his primary teacher was Buddhaguptanatha.
Taranatha was recognised by Khenchen Lungrik Gyatso as the rebirth of Krishnacarya and the Khenchen’s own teacher, Jetsun Kunga Drolchok.
Probably not long after 1614, Taranatha went to Mongolia, where he reportedly founded several monasteries. He died probably in Urga. His rebirth became known as Zanabazar, the 1st Bogd Gegeen and Jebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia. His most recent reincarnation was the 9th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu, who died in 2012. The 14th Dalai Lama said in 2016 that the 9th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu was reincarnated and in 2023 the boy was identified but not officially enthroned.
What is Yellow Hat or Gelug School of Buddhism
The Gelug school of Buddhism, otherwise known as “Yellow Hat,” is one of four major schools (Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya) established by the early 1400s in Tibetan Buddhism. Similar to the other Buddhist schools, Gelug combined the philosophy and cosmology of Mahayana Buddhism and incorporated distinctive qualities from the Vajrayana teachings to develop and cultivate its own traditions.
The term Gelug means “order of excellence” or “virtuous order” in the Tibetan language, which reflects the belief in the institution of the Tulku (incarnate lama) unique only to Tibetan Buddhism. Additionally, the colour yellow is a significant color in Tibetan Buddhism, as it represents the colour closest to daylight and symbolizes the humility Gautama Buddha displayed in choosing a colour previously worn by criminals.
Avalokiteśvara 觀音
Gilded gold, bronze cast | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia
Here is a form of Avalokiteśvara 觀音, one of the most revered buddhas that is being worshipped today. Avalokiteśvara has numerous manifestations and is depicted in various forms and styles. While Avalokiteśvara was depicted as male in India, Avalokiteśvara is most often depicted as a female figure typically known as Guanyin (in Chinese) and Kannon (in Japanese) in East Asian Buddhism.
Amitāyus 阿彌陀佛
Gilded gold, bronze cast | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia
Amitāyus or Amitābha is known for his longevity, discernment, pure perception, and the purification of aggregates with deep awareness of the emptiness of all phenomena. The name Amitābha means “Infinite Light”, and the name Amitāyus means “Infinite Life”. His two main disciples (the same number as Gautama Buddha) are the bodhisattvas Vajrapani and Avalokiteśvara, the former to his left and the latter to his right. The Great Buddha of Kamakura 鎌倉大仏 is a large bronze statue of Amitābha
Green Tara
Gilded gold, bronze cast | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia
The two wives of the first king of Tibet, Songtsen Gampo, were understood to be emanations of Tara; Bhrikuti Devi from Nepal is identified with Green Tara and the Chinese Princess Wencheng with White Tara. As King Songtsen Gampo is accepted as a manifestation of Avalokiteshvara and the two taras are understood to evoke the historical figures credited with establishing Buddhism in Tibet. The Green Tara is generally shown seated on a lotus throne with right leg hanging down, wearing the ornaments of a bodhisattva and holding the closed blue lotus (utpala).
Prajnaparamita
Gilded gold, bronze cast | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia
Prajnaparamita (the Perfection of Wisdom) is the Goddess of Wisdom, Mother of all Buddhas. She is associated with Heart Sutra 心經 and always has a copy of The Wisdom Sutras (also called Prajnaparamita). She probably emerged from monasteries in southern India as a Buddhist counterpart to the Brahmanical wisdom goddess Lakshmi. She is usually represented yellow or white in colour, with one head and two arms (sometimes more), the hands in the teaching gesture (dharmachakra-mudra) or holding a lotus and the sacred book.
Yamandag or Vajrabhairava
Bronze cast, gilded gold | 19th century | National Museum of Mongolia
Yamandag (Tibetan: Yamantaka) 大威德金剛 is the Destroyer of Death. It is depicted with sixteen legs, thirty four hands, and nine heads. The top head shows Manjusri in an angry mood. The legs are standing on Yama 閻羅王, the Lord of Death, as well as all the Devas and Asuras. Buddhas are said to have ended the cycle of rebirth, or samsara, which “terminates death”. Therefore, Yamāntaka represents the ultimate goal for Mahayana practitioners on their path to enlightenment, symbolising the end of death.
Begze
Gilded gold, bronze cast | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia
Begze, Lord of War, has red skin and orange-red hair, two arms (as opposed to other Mahākālas, who have four or six), three blood-shot eyes and is wielding a sword in his right hand. He also holds a human heart in his right hand. In the stock of his right arm, he holds a bow and arrow and a halberd with bannet. He wears a chainmail shirt, which gave rise to his name, Jamsaran. He wears a Mongolian helmet with a crown of five skulls and four banners in the back.
The Amarbayasgalant Monastery
The complex of Amarbayasgalant Monastery or the “Monastery of Tranquil Felicity” was built from 1727 to 1736 and funded by order of the Emperor Yongzheng (and completed under his successor the Emperor Qianlong) of Qing China to serve as a final resting place for the first Jebzundamba Khutagt Zanabazar (1635–1723).
The monastery complex is located in the Iven Valley near the Selenge River, at the foot of Mount Büren-Khaan in Baruunbüren sum (district) of Selenge Province in northern Mongolia. Originally, Amarbayasgalant Monastery had over 40 temples, built on special terraces, surrounded by a wall, measuring 207 x 175 m. Now only 28 temples survived and they have been under State protection since 1944.
Mongolian Lama Suit (c. 1920s)
Qing Mongolian Lama Clothing
On display in the museum are two sets of Lama clothings; the one on the left was from the traditional Mongolia style, the one on the right was from Qing dynasty. The pattern can be recognised being worn on Bogd Khan.
Kapala
Prayer Wheel
Stupa
Gilded gold, bronze cast, precious stones | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia
Kapāla
Kapāla, cup made of a human skull, frequently offered by worshipers to the fierce Tantric deities of Hindu India and Buddhist Tibet. In Tibet the skull cup is displayed on the Buddhist altar and is used in ritual to offer to the ferocious dharmapāla (“defender of the faith”) divinities either wine, which symbolizes blood, or dough cakes, which are shaped to resemble human eyes, ears, and tongues. The skull cup is often a handsomely worked object and rests on a triangular pedestal representing a sacrificial fire with skulls. The cup is mounted in metal, usually heavily embossed silver or gilt bronze, and topped with a lid shaped like half a skull, with a vajra- (“thunderbolt-”) shaped handle.
Prayer Wheel
A prayer wheel is a cylindrical wheel (Tibetan: འཁོར་ལོ།, Wylie: ‘khor lo, Oirat: кюрдэ) on a spindle made from metal, wood, stone, leather, or coarse cotton, widely used in Tibet and areas where Tibetan culture is predominant.
Traditionally, a mantra is written in Ranjana script or Tibetan script, on the outside of the wheel. The mantra Om mani padme hum is most commonly used, but other mantras may be used as well.
Also sometimes depicted are dakinis, Protectors and very often the eight auspicious symbols (ashtamangala). At the core of the cylinder is a “life tree” often made of wood or metal with certain mantras written on or wrapped around it. Many thousands (or in the case of larger prayer wheels, millions) of mantras are then wrapped around this life tree.
According to the Tibetan Buddhist tradition based on the lineage texts regarding prayer wheels, spinning such a wheel will have much the same meritorious effect as orally reciting the prayers.
Stupa
The stupa (“stupa” is Sanskrit for heap) is an important form of Buddhist architecture, though it predates Buddhism. It is generally considered to be a sepulchral monument—a place of burial or a receptacle for religious objects.
The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire; his head is the square at the spire’s base; his body is the vase shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace; and the base is his throne.
Dorje, Bell And Drum and Sutra Table
Brass, wood, copper, silver | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia
Badamkhatan Sutra
Ink, paper and silk | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia
Jadamba Sutra
Gold ink on paper | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia
Jadamba sutra, the head book of Buddhist scriptures, has been recreated a hundreds of times, among which there are remarkable art pieces made of nine, seven and five treasures as well as gold and silver. Being the main scripture of Prajnaparamita 般若波羅蜜多 “Perfection of Wisdom”, Jadamba sutra refers to the concept of reaching the wisdom, insight into the true nature of reality and enlightenment by training one’s mind.
Jadamba, which means ‘eight thousand’ in Tibetan, is a Buddha teaching sutra in 8000 lines and 32 chapters. Mongolians used to iconise the sacred scripture and recite it during the evenings to cast out evil spirits and pursue good deeds. It was believed that the sutra is good for all living beings and was sacred in every household and as it was the first volume of Ganjuur, nothing was put on the scripture.
Kangjur Sutra (Partial) 35 Pages Written in Nine Precious Minerals
9 precious stones pigments, gold ink on paper | 19th-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia
The meaning of “Kangyur” is “the translated words (of the Buddha)”. It is the entire collection of texts regarded as buddhavacana or “Buddha-word”, translated into Tibetan. This common text evolved into two slightly different branches – the ‘eastern’ branch, known as the Tshalpa, and the ‘western’ branch, known as the Thempangma. The Thempangma Kangyur were all copied by hand. In the 1650s, a collection of the Thempangma Kangyur was brought to Mongolia from Tibet by the Mongolian monk, Zanabazar. Subsequently, copies of this Kangyur would be made, and as of today, over 10 different Kangyurs are being kept by the National Library of Mongolia in Ulaanbaatar.
What are the 9 precious stones?
9 types of ‘precious stones’, namely gold, silver, coral, pearl, mother of pearl, turquoise, lapis lazuli, copper and steel, were first made into powder and placed into cups designated for each ‘stone’. Some fresh water from a mountain spring or rain water would then be mixed with special sweet adhesives, goat’s milk, and added to the cups to produce the ink. Then, using a painting brush made of sable fur, the ink would be used to write on processed black paper. In addition to the text, paintings were also added to the Kangyur. These images were painted according to the artistic tradition of Zanabazar, and is said to “immediately give peace of mind and admiration to anybody who looks at it.”
Wooden Printing Block
Wood | 17th century | National Museum of Mongolia
Wooden printing block was widely used in Mongolia for printing.
The Mendicant Monk
The term “mendicant” refers to begging or relying on charitable donations, This religious custom in Mongolia dates back to ancient times. When monks left Mongolia to pursue the study of Buddhist teachings in India, Tibet or Nepal, their monasteries prepared some necessary supplies. Mendicant monks carried a mendicancy donation cup, a travelling backpack, a set of walking sticks and a bag for donations throughout their journey.
Between the communist purges 1930-1940 Russian and Mongolian soldiers destroyed about 700 monasteries and temples. Within two decades, monks number was reduced from about 15,000 to approximately 200 monks. Gold and silver religious objects were transported to the Soviet Union and melted down to make bullet. But people still believing in Buddhism at home. Standing beside portraits of Lenin on the family alter were images of Buddha. Some lamas buried religious treasures to dig them up when it was safe. Until in 1990 any religion closed in Mongolia.
Religious Practice Today
After democratic movement in 1990 all religion reopened. In 2002, there are about 180 religious temples and churches operating in Mongolia and more than 110 Buddhist monasteries and temples and about 70 Christian churches in Mongolia. Today 50% of the Mongolians are Buddhists, 39% of population is not religious, 3% are Muslims, 3% of them are followers of the Mongol shamanic tradition, 2% are Christians, and 0.4% are followers of other religions.
Mongolian and TIbetan Buddhist Instruments
In the temples and monasteries of Mongolia, ritual musical instruments are used only in specific ceremonies. The Conch (Dun) is used to call the monks and nuns to the temples in the morning as well as at certain times during the ceremony. During normal prayers the ritual sceptre (Dorge) and small hand bell (Khonkh), double headed small hourglass pellet drum that used to be made from human craniums (Damara), are usually used to punctuated the chanting. The full orchestra of all the above instruments plus the thigh bone trumpet (Gandan buree), gong (Haranga), Double headed drum (Khengereg), shawm/oboe (Bisgüür) ,
Mongolian Flutes “Bishguur” бишгуур and “Gandan” гандан,
The bishguur (the back row) is a double-reed instrument (like the oboe), and sounded like an alto saxophone. It has a full chromatic scale and capable of playing both traditional, Western and modern music. Here’s an example of a virtuoso performing Carl Hohne’s Slavonic Variations on the bishguur.
Urt Buree (Dun-chen
Double-sided Pellet Drum “Damaru” with Chöpen
A damaru (Sanskrit: डमरु, Tibetan ཌ་མ་རུ་ or རྔ་ཆུང) is a small two-headed drum, used in Hinduism and Tibetan Buddhism.
Skull (thöpa) damaru
The skull (thöpa) damaru is made from a male and female skull bone or calvarium, cut well above the area of the ear, and joined at their apex. Inside, male and female mantras are appropriately inscribed in gold. The skins are traditionally cured by burying them with copper and other mineral salts, and special herbal formulas for about two weeks. These are then stretched and applied to the two sides, giving the skins their familiar blue or green mottled appearance. A collar of simple brocade, or copper or silver, has a hand-hold, and is the site of attachment of the beaters, whose knit cover represents two eyeballs. The skulls are also carefully chosen for their attributes and source. After the Tibetan diaspora in 1960, they began to be manufactured in India and Nepal, with a continued degradation of quality. Today, India is no longer a source, and their creation and export from Nepal are banned, because of the acquiring of human bone through illegal practices. One still does find occasionally those with painted skins and without the proper mantras or other characteristics.
Damaru of all kinds are traditionally paired with a long sash or tail called a chöpen. The chöpen is attached to the end of the drum’s handle so that it waves about while the drum is being played. They are most commonly made of brocade or silk using the colors of the tantric elements.
Tibetan Thighbone Trumpet “Ganlin” ганлин
Ganlin or Kangling (Tibetan: རྐང་གླིང་།), literally translated as “leg” (kang) “flute” (ling), is trumpet or horn made out of a human tibia or femur, used in Tibetan Buddhism for various chöd rituals as well as funerals performed by a chöpa. The leg bone of a deceased person is used. Alternatively, the leg bone of a respected teacher may be used. The kangling may also be made out of wood.
The kangling should only be used in chöd rituals performed outdoors with the chöd damaru and bell. In Tantric chöd practice, the practitioner, motivated by compassion, plays the kangling as a gesture of fearlessness, to summon hungry spirits and demons so that she or he may satisfy their hunger and thereby relieve their sufferings. It is also played as a way of “cutting off of the ego.”
Tibetan Fanfare “Tsondon Buree”
Wind musical instrument | 19h-20th century | National Museum of Mongolia
Long telescopic horns called tsondon buree (цондон бурээ), always played in pairs, and cymbals (Tsan) are only used on special days of worship. The Tibetan monks are led by a choir master who also instructs the novices in the methods of chanting and playing.
Games People Play
Some look familiar to Western games but go by different rules.
Mongolian Puzzles “Onison Togloom”
Mongolian puzzle games require patience and creative thinking from the player. This puzzle is highly important in developing both mathematical and technical brainwork. Puzzle games derived from the daily life of nomadic Mongolians and the primitive forms of puzzles include joint parts that are used for constructing fences and various clutches and locks for diverse uses. It was gradually developed and has led to the methods of constructing things that use no nails, such as “Shambaliin baishin” (Heaven’s house).
Puzzle games are based on the eleven primary ways of interlocking
wooden pieces. The earliest forms of these puzzles consisted of just two wooden pieces, but later the number of wooden pieces expanded. Some puzzles now have up to 673 pieces.
Mongolian Chess “Shatar”
Shatar or Mongolian chess is considered to be the king of the board games. It needs keen intelligence, creative thinking, and patience; chess is a type of intellectual sport. There is even a folk saying that chess players live longer.
In terms of figures, terms, and movements, Mongolian chess is distinctive from European chess and its theme is more closely linked to the herding livelihood. Rather than themes of armies and war, Mongolian chess manifests
the peace-loving mentality of animal farming people. Features of Mongolian chess Mongolian chess has totally different figures than European chess:
- Khaan (sitting on the throne)
- Noyon (Prince, sitting on his throne)
- Bers (Tiger or shepherd dog, the most reliable and loyal partner of livestock-breeders; this instead of a Queen)
- Temee (Mare-Camel with its baby, a child rider on a camel, and two fighting stallion camels; this instead of a Bishop)
- Mori (Galloping or bucking horse; instead of a Knight)
- Tereg (A pair of horses harnessed to a cart; instead of a Rook)
- Khüü (Wrestling kids; instead of Pawns)
Difference between Mongolian and International Chess
Each chess figure has its own unique movement and deep meaning. For instance, the King (Khaan) moves in short distances showing dignity and its command over the other figures. The King works to strategically prevent the counterpart King to move. Whereas the Dog serves the King with loyalty and moves in both short and long distances, it doesn’t make the movement of the horse. The Dog protects the pawns and other figures and sacrifices itself when needed. It is the strongest figure in the game. The rook makes long and short straight movements in all four directions. Livestock breeders note the pasturing practice of camels and reflect them in Mongolian chess. The rook, for instance, makes no straight movements, but instead moves to the right and left sides, making corners in short and long distances. As for the Knight (Horse), it moves resembling a hobbled-horse movement.
With regard to how the game is played, the differences between the rules for Mongolian chess and those for current international chess are:
- It is forbidden to check and win with the Horse during an ordinary game, as Mongolians regard the death caused by the Horse to be an evil death;
- In Mongolian chess, the first movement is compulsorily made by the Pawn. When playing with a person living in the locality, the starting player moves the pawn in front of the Noyon (Prince) two times and then moves with a single push in following moves;
- In the case of the Queen, it moves with a single step; but when moving straight, it can take several steps at the same time;
- When one side forces the counterpart to stay with a single King, it is considered a draw, which is called ‘nütsgerlee’ (“to become naked”);
- When the King and other figures have no moves of the counterpart without forcing a check-mate from the counterpart, it is considered a draw and called ‘Jid’;
- Only the Pawn that appears on the eighth line can become the Queen (Dog). There are a variety of interesting starts and wins. For instance, most common starts are the cantering of two camels, the trotting of two horses, and an attack of cart and horse.
There are also artistic wins, such as ‘Tavan khaluun khurteekh’ (Bestowing five hot) with lyrical phrases like:
- “Hot checkmate of an empty cart”
- “Attacking checkmate of a vicious stallion camel”
- “Threatening checkmate of a lion and tiger”
- “Kicking checkmate with a trammeled horse”
- “Courageous checkmate of an orphan boy” and
- “Winning of the dexterous bride,” and so forth.
Although there is no official affirmation of this, it is said that chess originated in Mongolia in the period of the Huns. There is a hypothesis, though, that chess could have been brought into Mongolia through India and Persia in the thirteenth to fourteenth centuries. This also could be linked to the fact that the Huns persistently attacked India and stationed their troops in distant territories for generations. Mongolian chess is one of the various board games that are part of the intellectual fund of humanity that has been shaped by nomadic Mongolians.
Multicoloured Turtle “Alag Melkhii”
On the Eve of the Lunar New Year (Tsagaan Sar), Mongolian children play constructing Multicoloured Turtle under the guidance of adults. The multicolored turtle consists of 92 anklebones. 36 anklebones are laid as a back of the turtle with 6 layers in each direction. In the 4 ends or shanks, there are located 16 anklebones, and 4 clubfeet are represented by 5 and total 20 anklebones. The organs of the turtle are represented by the following number of anklebones: the neck is 6, a mouth is 3, eyes are two, ears are two, a tail is 3, a kidney is 2, a heart is 2, and the bladder is 2 anklebones respectively. Kidney, heart, and bladder are represented by vivid colored anklebones. They are laid on the back of the turtle.
If the game is played on the first day of Lunar New Year, there should be a special part next to the head that 4 red anklebones are laid as a round, and tale is represented by 3 black anklebones. Also, on the left side, 5 blue anklebones are laid as an end of bow and arrow, and called as ‘the Tree’. In the right side of the Tree, 3 white anklebones are placed imitating the point of the arrow and called “the Iron”. Then 4 anklebones are placed on the four paws of the turtle, representing Dust, Air, Mountain and Wind.
Baajii
Baajii is a race game played in Mongolia on a cross-shaped board. It includes favourable spaces which protect pieces and others which are dangerous and send pieces back to start.
Four 3×8 rectangles, arranged in a cross. Four players. Eight fields are marked with a cross, which gives the player an extra throw. Some fields are marked with diagonal lines, and when a piece lands on them the piece is sent back to start. Pieces must be entered onto the board. The player who brings their pieces around the board to the point where it entered the board wins.
It reminded me of a childhood favourite of mine – the Airplane chess or Ludo.
Khorol (Zendmene)
Khorol (Zendmene) is one of the ancient games played by Mongolians. It is known as ‘Khorol’ in Western Mongolia. Khorol is crafted with square wood blocks, sized and shaped similar to ancient dominos. There are a total of 60 figures drawn on the blocks, representing 4 from each of the 15 figures, each with different powers. These figures include zendmene (a wish-fulfilling symbol, the strongest figure), ölzii (a symbol of luck), lion, dragon, snake, horse, and sheep. These figures are held in the hands and called hand items. Other figures are placed on the ground face down and called ground items. These include the monkey, rooster, dog, boar, mouse, ox, tiger and rabbit.
To play, people share the same even numbers, like 4 and 6, and make a group. All the blocks are placed face down on a special table and mixed well. Then the players place them in a circle, laying 5 by 5, and decide who will start by taking the laid blocks. Players take the blocks in turn in a clockwise fashion and then sort them according to the ground item and hand item. Two of the same items is called ‘Kholboo’ (linkage); four of the same items is called ‘Aziin döröv’ (four of luck) and the group that draws this can start the game. After sorting the items accordingly, the group that has the priority to start the game starts. Using the items, the players aim to build as many as possible homes and employ different strategies and much craftiness.
Üichüür
This card-like game is played with dice. different animals of seven types; each having its own score. Each of Üichüür cards are painted using about 130 the animals demonstrate different movements and profiles. Üichüür game paintings in the Zanabazar Museum of Fine Arts. The museum holds 136 small cards with the paintings of nature and animals. In this game, there are paintings of 64 different birds, 32 rabbits, 16 musk deer, 8 deer, 3 vultures, 3 dogs, 3 foxes, 4 snow-leopards, 2 tigers and 1 lion, each located in a different environment with different movements.
About National Museum of Mongolia
National Museum of Mongolia is an ideal place for those who are eager to discover the origins of Mongolian history, culture and tradition. It showcases over 6,000 pieces artefacts dated from pre-historic time to present-day Mongolia.
History of the Museum
1924 : Central Museum
Mongolia’s first museum opened to the public in 1924, but that was the precursor to Natural History Museum (which was confusingly called National Museum). The collections started at that time were for a natural museum, but that building no longer exists.
1956 : State Central Museum
In the socialist period, history, natural environment, palaeontology and Mongolian art collections were moved into a renamed State Central Museum built in 1956.
1991 : National Museum of Mongolian History
Between the late 1980s and early 1990s, Mongolia began to transform toward democratic policies and an open-market economy. This led to the redevelopment of museum management and reopening of some earlier museums. In 1991, the National Museum of Mongolian History was established by merging the collections of two museums: the State Central Museum and Museum of Revolution.
In 2008, the National Museum of Mongolian History was elevated to the status of the National Museum of Mongolia. The present building was built in 1971, originally as the Museum of Revolution.
List of Exhibits
The museum consists of three storeys and 9 permanent and 1 temporary exhibition halls.
- First hall: Ancient Mongolia
- Second Hall: Xiongnu Empire and Ancient Kingdoms
- Third Hall: Traditional Clothing and Ornaments
- Fourth Hall: Mongolian Empire
- Fifth Hall: Traditional Culture
- Sixth Hall: Traditional Farming
- Seventh Hall: 17th-early 20th century
- Eighth Hall: Socialist Mongolia
- Ninth Hall: Democratic Mongolia
Opening Hours
- Summer (15 May – 15 Sep) 7.00am – 9.00pm
- Winter (16 Sep – 15 May) 9:00am – 6.00pm
- Closed on Mondays
Visited May 2023
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