National Museum of Mongolia – Prehistoric to Xiongnu Empire (13th Century BC – 1st Century AD)

When I mention Xiongnu, what comes to mind? Mulan or savage warriors on horseback? Blame Disney for distorting the imagery of the Xiongnu, and the West for their depiction of Attilia the Hun. We follow the journey on how the Central Asia steppes became a nation.

These were the artefacts found within modern-day Mongolia borders and were exhibited in Hall 1 and Hall 2 of the National Museum of Mongolia. Hall 1 was closed for preparation, but some of the deer stones and stone arts were on display in the temporary hall. The description are in chronological order (not the exhibition route).

Prehistoric Mongolia (before 3rd Century BC)

Archeological evidence shows that the area now known as Mongolia has been inhabited for more than 800,000 years. A large number of ethnicities have lived in this area throughout history.

Deer Stone Nº.38 At Bayantsagaan (Replica)

Stone | Late bronze age (13th-7th century BC) | Ikhtamir soum, Arkhangai aimag

The deer stones are part of a pastoral tradition of stone burial mounds and monumental constructions that appeared in Mongolia and neighbouring regions during the Bronze Age (ca. 3000–700 BCE).

Rock art is invaluable source of cultural and arts the ancient people who lived in Mongolia. Because Rock art is figurative reflection of religious beliefs, art and moreover included valuable information of their life ways. The geographical conditions, people life ways and intellection have the most affected for the general pictographic contents of the Mongolian rock art.

Herd of Ibex (Rock Art)

Stone | Late bronze age (13th – 7th century BC)

Human Intercourse (Rock Art)

Stone | Late bronze age (13th – 7th century BC)

Animal figures are predominantly depicted during the Upper Paleolithic, while about human life activity figures widely appear in the Neolithic Age because of self-knowing of humans, the changes to life way, and intellectual progress. In Bronze Age rock art progressed its own unique characteristics in terms of content, scene, and theme pictographic techniques.

Xiongnu Empire (3rd Century BC – 1st Century AD)

Most of these people were nomads who, from time to time, formed confederations that rose to prominence. The first of these, the Hunnu or Xiongnu 匈奴, were brought together to form a confederation by Modu Chanyu 冒頓單于 (c. 234 – c. 174 BCE) in 209 BC. It is marked as the beginning of statehood in Mongolian territory.

During the Warring States Period (475–221 BC), it was said that King Wuling of Zhao (325–299 BC) instructed his soldiers to dress like the Xiongnu, master their weapons and learn to ride horses like them. You can see how effective these war tactics were against the Chinese armies.

Silk with Images Of Tigers Embroidered with Spiral Patterns

Silk | Xiongnu period (3rd century BC-1st century AD) | Noyon uul, batsumber soum, Tuv aimag

Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), forcing the latter to construct the Great Wall of China. It was guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during Marshal Meng Tian’s tenure, as a means of defence against the destructive Xiongnu raids.

Jade Decorations

Jade stone | Xiongnu period (3rd century BC – 1st century AD) | Noyon uul, Batsümber sum, Tov aimag

In 198 BC they negotiated a treaty with the Han dynasty (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), and as a result received tribute from them for 50 years. Their influence extended far to the west, and included many Central Asian city-states.

Legend of Modu

The legend says, that the first Chanyu Touman (頭曼) favoured a younger son from another concubine. To get rid of his eldest son Modu, Touman sent him to the Yuezhi 月氏 as a hostage, and then made a sudden attack on them. In retaliation the Yuezhi prepared to kill Modu, but he managed to steal a horse and escape back to the Xiongnu. Touman was impressed of his bravery and put him in command of a force of 10,000 horsemen. Modu was very successful in training his men to obey him absolutely.

In 209 BC, Modu commanded his men to shoot his father, killing him as well as his stepmother, younger brother, and the high officials who refused to take orders from him. Thereafter Modu became chanyu.

The Xiongnu Empire under Modu took advantage of the wars inside China and extended from the Great Wall in the south, to Lake Baikal in the north; and stretched east-west from il Tarvagatai to Korea. Many remnants of their settlements have been found in Mongolia.

Excavation of the Uguumur

Mountain burial located within the Selenge Prince’s Sant soum revealed a 2 meter long wooden spear alongside 2 steel swords placed atop one another. These are regarded as important archaeological discoveries that showcase Xiongnu weaponry. Weapons were predominantly buried alongside men.

The Xiongnu favoured the long range and powerful bow and arrow. They preferred combat where they could fire their arrows from a distance rather than directly engage their enemies face-to-face.

Large numbers of bow pieces made from horn are found from Xiongnu sites in Mongolia and nearby territories. These pieces indicate that the Xiongnu used compound bows. Alongside horse riding, mastery of the bow was seen as crucial amongst the Xiongnu people. In addition to learning both from a young age, great emphasis was placed on how to constantly improve and refine their bows. Their wooden, bone glued, long range composite bows were passed down to subsequent nomads who used and improved upon them.

Arrow Head

Bone | Xiongnu period (2nd century BC – 1st century AD) | Khulkhiin am, Khotont sum, Arkhangai aimag

The Xiongnu used arrows made from bronze, iron and bone, which were extremely sharp and able to heavily wound and pierce targets whether in battle or hunting. They had over 20 types of arrowheads made from metals, including those that could pierce armour, had two to three fletchings and three to four sided tips. These arrowheads have been found in Mongolia, Southern Siberia, and the Altai mountain region. Metal knife pieces are also found plentiful within Xiongnu burial grounds.

Xiongnu Horse Ornaments and Accessories

Xiongnu bred and domesticated horses in large numbers for the purposes of war and everyday life and thus horses were held in high regard.

Horse ornaments and accessories were made from gold and silver and adorned with intricate and beautiful designs as with inlays of precious stones. These were excavated from these sites.

1. Noyon wul, Batsümber sum, Töv aimag
2. Khudgin tolgoi, Battsangel sum, Arkhangal aimag
3. Shombuuzin belchir, Monkhkhairkhan sum, Khovd amag

Xiongnu Culture and Daily Lives

Full recognition of Xiongnu art only occurred after the 1920’s archaeological excavation of Noyon Mountain in Northern Mongolia. Buryat academic in Xiongnu studies, P.B. Konovalov strongly denied and protested the consensus held by certain scholars that Xiongnu art was “an inelegant replica of art from preceding periods”. He instead asserted that Xiongnu art made great contributions to animal style art and the images it featured were unique, especially in regards to symbolism, and as such was an epicentre of art with its own independent origins.

During the last decade, excavations of Xiongnu burial sites in Mongolia have been actively carried out, uncovering dozens of valuable and priceless artefacts. Amongst Xiongnu bronze cast artefacts, which has become a focal point of Xiongnu art, the most reoccurring artefacts are belt ornaments that feature depictions of humans, animals and geometric images.

Belt Decorations

Gold, bronze, iron and stone | Xiongnu period (2nd BC – 1st century AD) | Shombuuzin belchir, Mönkhkhairkhan sum, Khovd aimag

We can observe from Xiongnu art that images of “powerful ancestors, heroic warriors and rulers”, which formed the basis of Scythian-Siberian art, occupied a likewise important foundational significance within their art. While the selection of Xiongnu images, their movement, symbolism and stories, in many ways overlap with images from previous periods, there are also many instances where new images have been created, previously unseen.

Decorative Items Collected from Different Excavations

Gold, bronze, glass, stone | Xiongnu period (2nd century BC – 1st century AD)

These decorative items came from these locations

1. Duurlig nars, Bayan-Adarga sum, Khentii aimag
2. Tevsh uul, Bogd sum, Övörkhangai aimag
3. Zamiin ötög, Züünkhangai sum, Uvs aimag
4. Airagin gozgor, Jargalant sum, Orkhon aimag

Handmade Xiongnu pottery were smaller in size, inelegantly crafted and poorly fired. Such pottery were meant for household purposes, lacked patterns or ornamentation and were typically plain. Based on their purpose, pottery and vessels came in various shapes and designs. Pottery and vessels were produced in large quantities to meet public demand in many places such as the Ivolga settlement, the Boroo Settlement and Khust Bulga.

Bronze Pots

Bronze | Xiongnu period (2nd century BC – 1st century AD) | 1. Duurlig nars, Bayan-Adarga sum, Khentii aimag; 2. Shombuuzin belchir, Mönkhkhairhan sum, Khova aimag

Xiongnu household pottery and vessels were suited to nomadic living, thus were typically small, plain and portable. However, pottery and vessels discovered within cities and settlements were bigger and made in larger quantities.

Lamp Cup

Bronze | Xiongnu period (2nd century BC – 1st century AD) | Takhiltiin khotgor, Mankhan sum, Khovd aimag

Archaeological excavation has revealed that the Xiongnu, in addition to commonly using wooden vessels and utensils (such as birch and bark), also widely used those made from bronze.

Xiongnu Funeral Rites

Archaeologists have excavated many Xiongnu tombs. Common Hunnu tombs are very widely dispersed in Mongolia, Russian Buryatia, and northern China.

Handle Of Coffin

Bronze and gold | Xiongnu period (3rd century BC – 1st century AD) | Duurlig nars, Bayan-Adarga sum, Khentil aimag

Coffin Ornament

Iron | Xiongnu period (2nd century BC – 1st century AD) | Noyon uul, Batsümber sum, Töv aimag

Common Xiongnu tombs look like a stone circle on the earth. The average depth is 2-5 meters. There were special customs when people were buried, depending on class, gender, and age.

Ankle Bones

Animal bones | Xiongnu, Xianbei period (1st-2nd century AD) | Airagiin gozgor, Jargalant sum, Orkhon aimag

Cattle bones have been found in Hunnu tombs, which seems to indicate that sacrificial ceremonies were performed. Tools, equipment, pottery, bow joints, arrow heads, knives, and decorations have also been recovered from Xiongnu tombs. These artefacts are very important sources of information about the Xiongnu’s economy, social organization, and customs.

The Xiongnu graves have kept a few iron swords and knives, short distance weapons, because the iron was a precious metal at that time. So the Xiongnu rarely put these kinds of weapons along the distinguished warriors only on a special occasion in the graves.

Airagiin Gozgor Ovor Site (1st century BC – 2nd century AD)

From 2014, researchers of NMM have been studying the tombs of Airagiin Gozgor and Ovor in Jargalant soum, Orkhon province. The monument contains over 100 graves of large and small types.

Small tombs are closed with circular stones and have square hole under the ground. The bottom of the hole has extra niche for wooden coffin. Large tombs have niche for the dead person at a depth of about 6 m at the end of the slope entrance. The shape and structure of these tombs are similar to the tombs of Touba Xianbei and Northern Wei excavated in Inner Mongolia because buried person is accompanied with cows, clay stoves, and animal bones.

Paleoanthropology analysis revealed that some people found from the Airagiin Ovor graves belonged to Xianbei 鮮卑 people. Chronological study shows that the tombs are connected with the period from the 1st century BC to the 3rd century AD.

And It All Disappeared Suddenly

They were generally regarded as the first nomadic tribe to be the ruler of the central steppes that became Mongolia but they were not exactly genetically a direct lineage of the Mongolians. At the turn of the 1st century, they disappeared as quickly as their appearance on the world stage.

Braided Hair with Silk Case

Xiongnu period (3rd century BC – 1st century AD) | Noyon uul, Batsümber sum, Töv aimag

The Xiongnu Empire, per se, ceased to exist by the end of the 1st century BC. However the same ethnic groups, under the leadership of Attila, formed the Hun Empire in Europe during the 5th century AD, wielded power in 5 states of China through 16 dynasties, and had major influence on thousands of years of history in Asia and in Europe.

Sun And Moon (Emblem of the Xiongnu)

Gold | Xiongnu period (2nd century BC – 1st century AD) | 1. Shombuuziin belchir, Mönkhkhairkhan sum, Khovd aimag; 2. Takhiltiin khotgor, Mankhan sum, Khovd aimag

The sun and moon are usually depicted at the top of deer stones of Mongolian and Central Asian region. According to Records of the Grand Historian (Chinese name: 史記), “Xiongnu Chanyu pray for the sun in the morning, pray for the moon in the evening…when moving to attack observe sun and moon locations, attacking when moon appearing and depart when moon disappearing”. These images were all on the top of the coffin and it confirms that Xiongnu had the practice of sun and moon worshipping. These symbols are now part of the Soyombo of the Mongolia state emblem, acknowledging their Xiongnu heritage.

About National Museum of Mongolia

National Museum of Mongolia is an ideal place for those who are eager to discover the origins of Mongolian history, culture and tradition. It showcases over 6,000 pieces artefacts dated from pre-historic time to present-day Mongolia. 

History of the Museum

In 2008, the National Museum of Mongolian History was elevated to the status of the National Museum of Mongolia. The present building was built in 1971, originally as the Museum of Revolution.

List of Exhibits

The museum consists of three storeys and 9 permanent and 1 temporary exhibition halls.

• First hall: Ancient Mongolia
• Second Hall: Xiongnu Empire and Ancient Kingdoms
• Third Hall: Traditional Clothing and Ornaments
• Fourth Hall: Mongolian Empire
• Fifth Hall: Traditional Culture
• Sixth Hall: Traditional Farming
• Seventh Hall: 17th-early 20th century
• Eighth Hall: Socialist Mongolia
• Ninth Hall: Democratic Mongolia

Opening Hours

• Summer (15 May – 15 Sep) 7.00am – 9.00pm
• Winter (16 Sep – 15 May) 9:00am – 6.00pm
• Closed on Mondays

Visited May 2023