National Museum of Mongolia – Ancient States before Genghis Khan (87-1234)

In 93 AD the Xianbei 鮮卑, an ancient Mongolian nomadic tribe, defeated the Xiongnu, replacing the empire with its own leadership. Several states followed in succession – Rouran, Görtürk, Uyghur, Khitan (Liao) and Jurchen (Jin), before the rise of the Mongolian Empire.

Hall 2 of National Museum of Mongolia exhibits items relating to the social and cultural life of the various powers and is organised along the following periods.

1. Xiongnu period (3rd century BC – 1st century AD)
2. Xianbei period (1st – 3rd century AD)
3. Rouran (Joujan) period (3rd – 6th century AD)
4. Turkic period (6th – 8th century AD)
5. Uyghur period (8th – 9th century AD)
6. Khidan (Liao) dynasty (10th – 12th century AD)

We covered the rise and fall of th Xiongnu in the last post. The story of Mongolia continues (in chronological order) with other Ancient States.

Xianbei period (1st-3rd century)

Xianbei 鮮卑 originated from the Donghu 東胡 people who splintered into Wuhuan 烏桓 and Xianbei when they were defeated by the Xiongnu at the end of the 3rd century BC. The Xianbei were largely subordinate to larger nomadic powers and the Han dynasty until they gained prominence in 87 AD by killing the Xiongnu chanyu Youliu. Among all Xianbei tribes the politically most successful were the Tuoba 拓跋 that founded the Northern Wei 北魏 (386-534) empire. However unlike the Xiongnu, the Xianbei political structure lacked the organisation to pose a concerted challenge to the Chinese for most of their time as a nomadic people.

Rouran Khaganate (330-552)

Rouran 柔然 Khaganate (330-552) may not be unfamiliar to you – the main antagonistic faction of Disney’s 2020 live-action war action drama film Mulan were the Rouran Army. The founder of the Rouran Khaganate, Yujiulu Shelun, was descended from Mugulü, a slave of the Xianbei. The term “Mongol” is a likely derivation from Mugulü. The Rouran Khaganate lasted from the late 4th century until the middle 6th century, when they were defeated by a Göktürk 突厥  rebellion at the peak of their power, which subsequently led to the rise of the Ottoman Empire in world history.

Turkic Khaganates (551-744)

In the territory of present Mongolia, the First Turkic khaganate or Görtürk Khaganate (552–603) were established in 551 AD by Bumin Qaghan (490-552), the leader of the Ashina tribe.

Its territory stretched from the Volga River to the Korean Peninsula in the east, Lake Baikal in the north, and the Great Wall in the south. Its political centre was located in the Orkhon Valley of present Mongolia. Bumin Qaghan’s younger brother Istämi led the battle of the Turks to the west, conquered the lands up to the Volga River, and was given the title of Yabgu to rule the western part of the Turkic Khaganate, which was later divided into the Western and Eastern Turkic Khaganates.

The Görtürk Khaganate collapsed in 603, after a series of conflicts and civil wars which separated the polity into the Eastern Turkic Khaganate 東突厥 (552–630) and Western Turkic Khaganate 西突厥 (603–657). The Tang dynasty (618-907) conquered the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in 630 and the Western Turkic Khaganate in 657 in a series of military campaigns. The Second Turkic Khaganate 後突厥 emerged in 682 and lasted until 744, when it was overthrown by the Uyghur Khaganate.

Artefacts of Turkic Period

Iron, wood. bone | Turkic period (6th-8th century)

There is no established theory about the origin of the Turkic people, but the theory sought in the grassland area east of the Ural Mountains was strong, and it was close to the Mongolian people. In terms of race, it is also considered to be a Mongoloid. Until the Tang Dynasty, most of them had black hair, straight hair and black eyes. However, around the end of the Tang Dynasty, the Eastern Uyghur Khanate collapsed, and the Turkic ethnic groups moved from the Mongoria-Altai region and ruled the entire Tarim Basin from the Tianshan Mountains. As a result, the Indo-European language family of the first caucasians became Turkic for several generations and became speakers of Turkic languages.

Golden Crown Of Bilge Qaghan

Gold | Turkic period (8th century) | Khöshöö tsaidam, Khashaat sum, Arkhangai aimag

Bilge Qaghan (683-734) was the fourth Qaghan of the Second Turkic Khaganate (682-744). His accomplishments were described in the Orkhon inscriptions found as a steele in the . He appointed his brother Kültegin to be Left Wise Prince 左賢王, which made him second most powerful person in realm. He re-subdued Huihe 回紇 (reference of the Uyghurs in pre-Tang dynasty) in 716. He also appointed his father-in-law Tonyukuk (c.646-726)  to be Master Strategist.

Silver Deer of Bilge Qaghan

Silver | Turkic period (8th century) | Khöshöö tsaidam, Khashaat Sum, Arkhangal aimag

The deer has been praised for its proportions and its skillful engravings. It shows the high level of craftsmanship reached at the time. The ornament displays skillfulness in casting and carving, and is appreciated for its model proportions. The deer has large eyes, pointed ears and big antlers. The artefact has pegs below its hooves. This suggests that the deer was attached to another item, probably a standing base.

The figure of the deer was symbolically important to the Turks, and it also features in other noted artworks located in northern Mongolia, the so-called deer stones. The Silver Deer of Bilgä Qaghan reflects the nomadic tradition of worshiping deer during the Turkic period.

Monuments of the Second Turkic Khaganate (682–744)

The monuments of the famous leaders of the Second Turkic Khaganate such as Bilge Qaghan, General Kültegin, and Tonyukuk are preserved in present day Mongolia. Also, the Government of Mongolia has preserved hundreds of burial grounds, shrines, inscribed monuments and stone statues of the period.

Inscription El etmish Bilge kagan (Tariat Stele)

Stone | Turkic period (753 AD) | Doloon mod, Tariat sum, Arkhangai aimag

The stele was made in honour of Eletmish Bilge kagan (r. 747-759), son of Ashina Duoxifu who was the younger brother of first two Qaghans of the Second Turkic Khaganate. Ashina Duoxifu was killed by Kültegin for attempting a coup against the third Qaghan. His son submitted to Bilge Qaghan and was forgiven.

Stone Statue Of Sirgali

Stone | Turkic period (7th-8th century) | Sirgal, Tsengel sum, Bayan-Olgii aimag

Statue of a Turkish prince holding libation cup (7th/8th century AD), discovered in the Mongolian Altai by the French Archeological Mission of the Institute of Deserts and Steppes. Brought back by all-terrain truck, over 2,300 kilometres, it was put on display on June 15, 2006 in the presence of the Ambassadors of France and Turkey.

Kültegin’s Memorial Complex (732 AD)

In 1958 a Mongolian and Czechoslovakian joint expedition ventured out to dig out Kültegin’s monument complex in the Khoshoo tsaidam site. It was here that they found buried Kültegin’s statue head, broken in two pieces and a piece of his wife’s statue face.

Kültegin (684–731) was a general and a prince of the Second Turkic Khaganate. He was a second son of Ilterish Qaghan, the Second Turkic Khaganate’s founder, and the younger brother of Bilge Kaghan, the fourth Qaghan.

Stele of Kültegin (Replica)

Stone | Turkic period (732 AD) | Khöshöö tsaidam, Khashaat sum, Arkhangai aimag

A year after his death, a temple and stone stele were erected on Kültegin‘s gravesite. These inscriptions tell the history of the ancient Turks and Kültegin’s political career.

Burial Rites of the Turks

Initially, the Turks cremated their deceased and they later began to bury them. In doing so, they placed horses with saddles and bridles, and other artefacts as an accompaniment. Also in their tombs, bronze belt ornaments, weaponry, vases and pottery, bronze coins, the remains of silk and cotton, and other objects have been found.

Harp Named “Yaylig” Belonging to Chure

Wood, leather | Turkic period (6th-8th century) | Mankhan, Khovd aimag

This musical instrument was discovered in an ancient cave burial at Umnukh notch of Jargalant Khairkhan Mountain in Mankhan county of Khovd province. The tomb contained the remains of a warrior named Chure, equipped with a complete set of weapons. Interestingly, among the top part of the remains was an undamaged, well preserved musical instrument made of wood.

The outer edge of the main body and the neck of the instrument have carved inscriptions in Runic script in six parts. This musical instrument was named Yaylig in ancient Turkic language (in Mongolian “Ayalguut” or “melody”). The picture depicts six deers, a mountain goat, five dogs and a man aiming to shoot an arrow. The runic script inscriptions and carving on the musical instrument firmly indicate that the tomb dates back to the Turkic period.

Turks located in the Orkhon-Tuul Rivers basin used runic scripts and became a powerful Turkic empire co- existing with Tang, Byzantium and Iran. There is evidence that the Turkic Khaganate also used the Mongolian language at the beginning.

Bow and Quiver /Reconstructed/

Wood and iron | Modern reconstruction | Landes Museum in Bonn, Berlin Technical and Economic College, Institute of Conservation Sciences of Cologne University of Applied Sciences and Leather Museum in Offenbach

This is a composite wooden bow reinforced with horn and bone. The bow has a core, ears, a belly, a grip, and a bowstring. The wooden belly was reinforced with horn and covered with sinew fibrous. The belly consists of four pieces of carved bones spliced together. The ears were covered with sinew fibrous and attached to the core. The splices and ears were also covered with birch bark. The ears were made of wood and spliced into the core. Additionally, a quiver was found at the burial site at Jargalant Mountain, which has a trapezoid tube shape. The inside is oval, and the main body is covered with birch bark and leather. It contained 23 arrows.

The restoration of the unique artefacts was made possible by generous funding of the Gerda Henkel Foundation of Germany. The months of hard work of the staff of Landes Museum in Bonn, Berlin Technical and Economic College, Institute of Conservation Sciences of Cologne University of Applied Sciences and Leather Museum in Offenbach have greatly contributed to successful restoration of the unique historical artefacts. The arrows, a bow, a quiver and the musical instrument have been restored to their original state.

Uyghur Khanganate (744–840)

Uyghurs 維吾爾 was a tribe of the Tiele 高車, which was also under the rule of the Turkic Khaganate. They overthrew the First Turkic Khaganate and established the Uyghur Khaganate. Uyghur Khaganate claimed descent from the Xiongnu (according to Chinese history annal “Book of Wei” 魏书, the founder of the Uyghur Khaganate was descended from a Xiongnu ruler).

Stone People – Turkic or Uyghur?

Stone people (in Mongolian, Khun Chuluu) are stone statues placed on the grassland in the image of nomads, but there are as many as 500 stone people scattered here and there in the grassland area of Mongolia, and about 400 of them are thought to have been made in the Turkic period. The monuments that are closely bound to shamanism ideology, faith and rituals come to be an important source for studying material culture of that time and message the monuments carry itself. Many others were also discovered in Tuva and Altai of Russia, Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang of China.

Uyghur Plates Of Armour

Iron | Uyghur period (8th-9th century AD) | Khar balgas, Khotont sum, Arkhangai aimag

The Uyghur Khaganate lasted from 744 to 840. It was administered from the imperial capital Ordu-Baliq, one of the biggest ancient cities built in Mongolia. It was built on the site of the former Göktürk imperial capital, 27 km north-to-northwest of the later Mongol capital, Karakorum. 

Artefacts From Uyghur Period

Iron, clay and bone | Uyghur period (8th-9th century AD)

1. Roof-end tile. Dörvöljin, Khotont sum, Arkhangai aimag
2. Bridle bit. Khar balgas, Khotont sum, Arkhangai aimag
3. Bone clasp. Khar balgas, Khotont sum, Arkhangai aimag
4. Iron arrowhead. Khar balgas, Khotont sum, Arkhangai aimag

Uyghur Clay Pottery

Clay | Uyghur period (8th-9th century) | 1. Delgertsogt sum, Bayankhongor aimag; 2. Dörvöljin, Khotont sum, Arkhangai aimag

In 840, following a famine and civil war, the Uyghur Khaganate was overrun by the Yenisei Kirghiz, another group of Turkic people. As a result, the majority of tribal groups formerly under Uyghur control dispersed and moved out of Mongolia.

Many contemporary western scholars, however, do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate of Mongolia. Rather, they consider them to be descendants of a number of peoples, one of them the ancient Uyghurs.

Khitan Empire (907-1218) and Liao Dynasty (916-1125)

The dominant view on the origin of the Khitan 契丹 people is that they were descended from Xianbei, and they in turn were ancestors of the Mongols. They are first mentioned in a historical source of the 4th Century. The “Great Khitan State” 大契丹 was founded in 907 by Abaoji or Yelü Yi 耶律億 (872-926). He declared himself as emperor in 916. After the Khitan Empire became the Liao dynasty in 942, Abaoji was posthumously considered a Liao emperor.

Khitan Clay Pottery

Clay | Khitan period (10th-11th century AD) | Chintolgol balgas, Dashinchilen sum, Bulgan aimag

When the Tang dynasty 唐 (618-907) disintegrated, the Khitans took control over the states in Northern China and deeply influenced the courts politics of the Five Dynasties 五代 (907-960). When Zhao Kuangyin 趙匡胤 founded the Song dynasty 宋 (960-1279) and reunited China, he was not able to conquer the parts of China lying north to the Yellow River. Constant border conflicts with the Song characterized the tenth century.

Khitan Knife And Awl

Wood and iron | Khitan period (10th-11th century AD) | Chonot uul cave burial, Bulgan sum, Khovd aimag

In 946 the Kitans even shortly conquered the Song capital Kaifeng 開封 (today in the province of Henan). Tired of the ceaseless skirmishes with the nomad people, the Song government proposed a peace treaty in 1005 that promised quiet frontiers. Yet they had to pay huge amounts of tributes to the Liao in order to ensure a stable situation at the frontiers.

Roof Tile With Khitan Inscription

Clay | Khitan period (10th-11th century AD) | Chintolgoi balgas, Dashinchilen sum, Bulgan aimag

By this point the Empire reached from the Eastern Sea to the Altai Mountains and from the Kherulen River to the White wall of China (Bo-gou), and included 5 capital cities, 6 Chjou, 150 fortified cities, 200 Khoshuu, 5000 clans and about 60 dependent states. In 947, Abaoji’s successor, Emperor Taizong of Liao, officially renamed the dynasty as “Great Liao” 大遼 (916-1125).

Khitan Artefacts

Khitan period (10th-11th AD) | Dundgobi, Erdene, Buleenii Ovoo

1. Fragment of grain
2. Ankle bone
3. Porcelain fragments
4. Pot
5. Spindle wheel
6. Bone brush
7. Bow joint

End of the Khitan Empire

The Liao dynasty was destroyed by the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in 1125. However, the remnant Liao loyalists, led by Yelü Dashi (Emperor Dezong of Liao), established the Western Liao dynasty (Qara Khitai), which ruled over parts of Central Asia for almost a century before being conquered by the Mongol Empire. 

Jurchen (Jin) period (12th-13th century)

The Jurchens 女真 were a federation of non-Chinese tribes living in the northeast of China (modern provinces of Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang). In the late 11th century they formed a tribal confederation under the tribal leader (qagan) Wanyan Aguda 完顏阿骨打. With a strong military organisation of all tribes, they succeeded to subdue the likewise non-Chinese Khitans that ruled China’s north by founding the Jin dynasty 金 (1115-1234). Aguda became Emperor Taizu of the Jin 金太祖 (r. 1115-1122) . The Mongols later saw the Jurchens as “Northern Chinese” and treated them better than the southern Chinese. Jurchens will eventually become the ancestors of Manchus that founded the Qing dynasty 清 (1644–1911).

The Rise of the Mongols (13th century)

By 1162, the year of Genghis Khan’s birth, the fragmented Mongolian tribes had fought so many futile battles against external enemies that the economy collapsed and the population sank into poverty, fear, and uncertainty. It set the stage for a powerful leader to unite the Mongolian tribes under a national banner for the first time. We shall examine the rise of the Mongolian empire in the next post.

About National Museum of Mongolia

National Museum of Mongolia is an ideal place for those who are eager to discover the origins of Mongolian history, culture and tradition. It showcases over 6,000 pieces artefacts dated from pre-historic time to present-day Mongolia. 

History of the Museum

In 2008, the National Museum of Mongolian History was elevated to the status of the National Museum of Mongolia. The present building was built in 1971, originally as the Museum of Revolution.

List of Exhibits

The museum consists of three storeys and 9 permanent and 1 temporary exhibition halls.

• First hall: Ancient Mongolia
• Second Hall: Xiongnu Empire and Ancient Kingdoms
• Third Hall: Traditional Clothing and Ornaments
• Fourth Hall: Mongolian Empire
• Fifth Hall: Traditional Culture
• Sixth Hall: Traditional Farming
• Seventh Hall: 17th-early 20th century
• Eighth Hall: Socialist Mongolia
• Ninth Hall: Democratic Mongolia

Opening Hours

• Summer (15 May – 15 Sep) 7.00am – 9.00pm
• Winter (16 Sep – 15 May) 9:00am – 6.00pm
• Closed on Mondays

Visited May 2023